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<title>Lineares zeitinvariantes System</title>
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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Lineares zeitinvariantes System</span></h1>
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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content mw-content-ltr" lang="de" dir="ltr"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="de" dir="ltr"><p>Als ein <b>lineares zeitinvariantes System</b>, auch als <b>LZI-System</b> und <b>LTI-System</b> (<span style="font-style:normal;font-weight:normal"><a href="Englische_Sprache" title="Englische Sprache">englisch</a></span> <span lang="en-Latn" style="font-style:italic"><i>linear time-invariant system</i></span>) wird ein <a href="Dynamisches_System_(Systemtheorie)" title="Dynamisches System (Systemtheorie)">dynamisches</a> <a href="%C3%9Cbertragungssystem" title="Übertragungssystem">Übertragungssystem</a> bezeichnet, wenn sein Ein-/Ausgangsverhalten <a href="Linearit%C3%A4t_(Systemtheorie)" title="Linearität (Systemtheorie)">linear</a> ist und wenn sich die Charakteristik des <a href="Systemverhalten" title="Systemverhalten">Systemverhaltens</a> nicht mit der Zeit ändert (<a href="Zeitinvarianz" title="Zeitinvarianz">Zeitinvarianz</a>).
</p><p>Die Theorie dieser <a href="System" title="System">Systeme</a> hat eine enorme Anzahl von Anwendungen in der realen Welt: Das System kann beispielsweise ein technisches System (aus der Mechanik, Elektrik, Thermodynamik, Nachrichtentechnik, Regelungstechnik und viele mehr), ein <a href="Biologie" title="Biologie">biologischer</a> Vorgang oder ein Bestandteil der <a href="Volkswirtschaft" title="Volkswirtschaft">Volkswirtschaft</a> sein.
</p><p>Das LZI-System ist ein abstraktes mathematisches <a href="Modellbildung" class="mw-redirect" title="Modellbildung">Modell</a> von realen Systemen, das interessierende Aspekte der realen Welt für einen bestimmten Zweck ausreichend genau beschreibt. Systeme, die nicht die erforderlichen Eigenschaften wie Linearität und Zeitinvarianz aufweisen, lassen sich häufig auf LZI-Systeme reduzieren: Beispielsweise werden nichtlineare dynamische Systeme häufig in einem gewissen <a href="Arbeitspunkt" title="Arbeitspunkt">Arbeitspunkt</a> untersucht und dazu im interessierenden Bereich <a href="Linearisierung" title="Linearisierung">linearisiert</a>.
</p><p>LZI-Systeme sind in der Regel in der Literatur außerdem kausal und punktkonzentriert. Das führt zu einer weiteren Vereinfachung der Methoden, die für Analyse und Entwurf dynamischer Systeme Verwendung finden.
</p>
<table class="infobox wikitable toptextcells float-right" cellspacing="5" style="font-size:95%; text-align:left; min-width:190px; max-width:300px; width:30%;">

<tbody><tr style="font-size:110%; text-align:center;">
<th colspan="2" class="hintergrundfarbe6" style="padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.5em; color:#202122;">Formelzeichen
</th></tr>



<tr>
<th><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle u}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>u</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle u}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/c3e6bb763d22c20916ed4f0bb6bd49d7470cffd8.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle u}" loading="lazy"></span>
</th>
<td> Vektor der Eingangssignale
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>x</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/87f9e315fd7e2ba406057a97300593c4802b53e4.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x}" loading="lazy"></span>
</th>
<td> Vektor der Zustandssignale
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle y}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>y</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle y}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/b8a6208ec717213d4317e666f1ae872e00620a0d.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.155ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle y}" loading="lazy"></span>
</th>
<td> Vektor der Ausgangssignale
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\mathcal {T}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">T</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\mathcal {T}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/8236d074e42310f5dc24d1d2b5b8f5981c3e87ba.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.936ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\mathcal {T}}}" loading="lazy"></span>
</th>
<td> Zusammenhang zwischen Eingangs- und Ausgangssignalen, Systemabbildung
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle t}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>t</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle t}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/65658b7b223af9e1acc877d848888ecdb4466560.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.84ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle t}" loading="lazy"></span>
</th>
<td> Kontinuierliche Zeit
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle a}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>a</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/ffd2487510aa438433a2579450ab2b3d557e5edc.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.23ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a}" loading="lazy"></span>
</th>
<td> Faktor, Gewicht
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle i}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>i</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle i}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/add78d8608ad86e54951b8c8bd6c8d8416533d20.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.802ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle i}" loading="lazy"></span>
</th>
<td> Laufindex
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle h(t)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>h</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle h(t)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/66abbb8ae1d9f30bb529739b109e1e5bbe83c626.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:3.988ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle h(t)}" loading="lazy"></span>
<p><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle H(t)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>H</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle H(t)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/9d1b6c8837aed2794e7b52afa88ad371f1d275fa.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.713ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle H(t)}" loading="lazy"></span>
</p>
</th>
<td> Impulsantwort
<p>Gewichtsmatrix
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \delta (t)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>δ<!-- δ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \delta (t)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/c050147a97868286252447ef73515c8108edd398.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:3.698ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \delta (t)}" loading="lazy"></span>
</th>
<td> Dirac-Impuls
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle t_{0}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>t</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle t_{0}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/02d3006c4190b1939b04d9b9bb21006fb4e6fa4a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.894ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle t_{0}}" loading="lazy"></span>
<p><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x(t_{0})}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<msub>
<mi>t</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x(t_{0})}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/30dccfced64263036f1ce61e61cb0219d1cf48de.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:5.033ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x(t_{0})}" loading="lazy"></span>
</p>
</th>
<td> Anfangszeit
<p>Anfangszustand
</p>
</td></tr></tbody></table>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Eigenschaften">Eigenschaften</h2></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Linearität"><span id="Linearit.C3.A4t"></span>Linearität</h3></div>

<div class="hauptartikel" role="navigation"><span class="hauptartikel-pfeil" title="siehe" aria-hidden="true" role="presentation">→&nbsp;</span><i><span class="hauptartikel-text">Hauptartikel</span>: <a href="Lineares_System_(Systemtheorie)" title="Lineares System (Systemtheorie)">Lineares System (Systemtheorie)</a></i></div>
<p>Ein System heißt dann linear, wenn ein mit <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle a}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>a</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/ffd2487510aa438433a2579450ab2b3d557e5edc.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.23ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a}" loading="lazy"></span> gewichtetes Eingangssignal <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle a\cdot u(t)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mi>u</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a\cdot u(t)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/50e993184e4bf5c33e68dfab5a61d91e7427a10d.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.888ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a\cdot u(t)}" loading="lazy"></span> zu einem entsprechend gewichteten Ausgangssignal <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle a\cdot y(t)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>a</mi>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mi>y</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a\cdot y(t)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/1c46fd544f1ee33709b8a88ddd252ad2c080ee99.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.713ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a\cdot y(t)}" loading="lazy"></span> führt.
</p><p>Dann gilt auch, dass sich aus einer Summe von gewichteten Eingangssignalen <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle a_{i}\cdot u_{i}(t)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>a</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>i</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<msub>
<mi>u</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>i</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a_{i}\cdot u_{i}(t)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/0ae0252e684d72f0776bae66f2f75e46f16a6961.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:8.487ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a_{i}\cdot u_{i}(t)}" loading="lazy"></span> das Ausgangssignal als entsprechende Summe der <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle a_{i}\cdot y_{i}(t)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>a</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>i</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a_{i}\cdot y_{i}(t)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/bbdf8c0957cff3318849c9600effb68892b69a87.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:8.296ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a_{i}\cdot y_{i}(t)}" loading="lazy"></span> ergibt. Das wird als <a href="Superposition_(Mathematik)" title="Superposition (Mathematik)">Superpositionsprinzip</a>, oder auch als Überlagerungsprinzip bezeichnet.
</p><p>Für den mathematischen Zusammenhang <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\mathcal {T}}}">
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/8236d074e42310f5dc24d1d2b5b8f5981c3e87ba.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.936ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\mathcal {T}}}" loading="lazy"></span> zwischen Eingang <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle u(t)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle u(t)}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/b375df3b65d282f8715835dc91ccb22f46993959.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:3.979ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle u(t)}" loading="lazy"></span> und Ausgang <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle y(t)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>y</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
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</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle y(t)}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/397de1edef5bf2ee15c020f325d7d781a3aa7f50.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:3.804ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle y(t)}" loading="lazy"></span> gilt bei linearen Systemen:
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \sum _{i}a_{i}y_{i}(t)=\sum _{i}a_{i}{\mathcal {T}}\left\{u_{i}(t)\right\}={\mathcal {T}}\left\{\sum _{i}a_{i}u_{i}(t)\right\}}">
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \sum _{i}a_{i}y_{i}(t)=\sum _{i}a_{i}{\mathcal {T}}\left\{u_{i}(t)\right\}={\mathcal {T}}\left\{\sum _{i}a_{i}u_{i}(t)\right\}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/805bf17982a259e14434f9da789de861a8cd927d.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.171ex; width:48.373ex; height:7.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \sum _{i}a_{i}y_{i}(t)=\sum _{i}a_{i}{\mathcal {T}}\left\{u_{i}(t)\right\}={\mathcal {T}}\left\{\sum _{i}a_{i}u_{i}(t)\right\}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Anschaulich entspricht das folgendem Versuch: Am Eingang des Systems wird ein Signal angelegt und die Reaktion beobachtet. Danach wird davon unabhängig die Reaktion auf ein zweites Signal untersucht. Beim Anlegen eines Eingangssignals, das die Summe aus den beiden zuvor begutachteten Signalen bildet, lässt sich feststellen, dass die Reaktion am Ausgang der Addition der beiden einzelnen Antworten entspricht, wenn das System linear ist.
</p><p>Wenn ein System linear ist, dann ist auch der Zusammenhang von Ein- und Ausgang mit den internen Zustandsgrößen linear, also der Zusammenhang zwischen <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle u(t)}">
<semantics>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle u(t)}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/b375df3b65d282f8715835dc91ccb22f46993959.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:3.979ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle u(t)}" loading="lazy"></span> und <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x(t)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
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</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x(t)}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/d54c275db3a1e620737b58e143b0818107fa5f5c.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:3.979ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x(t)}" loading="lazy"></span>, sowie der Zusammenhang zwischen <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x(t)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
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<mi>x</mi>
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</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x(t)}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/d54c275db3a1e620737b58e143b0818107fa5f5c.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:3.979ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x(t)}" loading="lazy"></span> und <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle y(t)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle y(t)}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/397de1edef5bf2ee15c020f325d7d781a3aa7f50.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:3.804ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle y(t)}" loading="lazy"></span>.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Zeitinvarianz">Zeitinvarianz</h3></div>

<div class="hauptartikel" role="navigation"><span class="hauptartikel-pfeil" title="siehe" aria-hidden="true" role="presentation">→&nbsp;</span><i><span class="hauptartikel-text">Hauptartikel</span>: <a href="Zeitinvarianz" title="Zeitinvarianz">Zeitinvarianz</a></i></div>
<p>Ein System heißt dann zeitinvariant, wenn für jede beliebige Zeitverschiebung um <i>t</i><sub>0</sub> gilt:
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\mathcal {T}}\left\{u(t-t_{0})\right\}=y(t-t_{0})}">
<semantics>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\mathcal {T}}\left\{u(t-t_{0})\right\}=y(t-t_{0})}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/1d268903246e4e55bd46e67a8b35643bee3cbf78.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:24.998ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\mathcal {T}}\left\{u(t-t_{0})\right\}=y(t-t_{0})}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Das bedeutet, dass sich die Charakteristik des Systemverhaltens nicht mit der Zeit ändert. Das Ausgangssignal <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle y(t)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>y</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle y(t)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/397de1edef5bf2ee15c020f325d7d781a3aa7f50.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:3.804ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle y(t)}" loading="lazy"></span> behält bei einer beliebigen Zeitverschiebung des Eingangssignals <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle u(t)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>u</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle u(t)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/b375df3b65d282f8715835dc91ccb22f46993959.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:3.979ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle u(t)}" loading="lazy"></span> den Zeitbezug zum Eingangssignal bei und reagiert darauf identisch. Dieses Prinzip wird auch als Verschiebungsprinzip bezeichnet.
</p><p>Das Gleiche gilt auch für den Zusammenhang von Ein- und Ausgang mit den internen Zustandsgrößen <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x(t)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x(t)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/d54c275db3a1e620737b58e143b0818107fa5f5c.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:3.979ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x(t)}" loading="lazy"></span>.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kausalität_und_Sprungfähigkeit"><span id="Kausalit.C3.A4t_und_Sprungf.C3.A4higkeit"></span>Kausalität und Sprungfähigkeit</h3></div>
<div class="hauptartikel" role="navigation"><span class="hauptartikel-pfeil" title="siehe" aria-hidden="true" role="presentation">→&nbsp;</span><i><span class="hauptartikel-text">Hauptartikel</span>: <a href="Systemtheorie_(Ingenieurwissenschaften)#Kausale_Systeme" title="Systemtheorie (Ingenieurwissenschaften)">Systemtheorie (Ingenieurwissenschaften)#Kausale Systeme</a></i></div><p>Systeme aus dem Anwendungsspektrum der LZI-Systeme sind realisierbar und daher <a href="Systemtheorie_(Ingenieurwissenschaften)#Kausale_Systeme" title="Systemtheorie (Ingenieurwissenschaften)">kausal</a>. D.h. im Signalausgang spielen zukünftige Signaleingänge keine Rolle. Der Signaleingang wird als Ursache für den Signalausgang (Wirkung) angesehen. Das entspricht auch dem <a href="Kausalprinzip_(Wissenschaftstheorie)" title="Kausalprinzip (Wissenschaftstheorie)">Kausalprinzip</a>: „Es gibt keine Wirkung ohne Ursache“. </p>
<p>Mathematisch gesehen ist ein System kausal, wenn die <a href="Impulsantwort" title="Impulsantwort">Impulsantwort</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle h(t)}">
<semantics>
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<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle h(t)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/66abbb8ae1d9f30bb529739b109e1e5bbe83c626.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:3.988ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle h(t)}" loading="lazy"></span> für vergangene Zeiten gleich Null ist:
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle h(t)=0\quad \forall t<0,}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
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<mn>0</mn>
<mspace width="1em"></mspace>
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<mo>,</mo>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle h(t)=0\quad \forall t&lt;0,}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/4a3f8e3389da4df9edc7175a5d97eb38a22245ef.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:17.611ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle h(t)=0\quad \forall t<0,}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Den Grenzfall bildet das Thema „Gleichzeitigkeit“: Beispiel: In der Mechanik kommt es bei der Ausübung einer Kraft gleichzeitig zu Kraftreaktionen (<a href="Actio_und_Reactio" title="Actio und Reactio">Actio und Reactio</a>). Wenn man nur die Signale der gemessenen Kräfte hat, dann ist es eine Sache der Interpretation, welche Kraft die Ursache darstellt und welche die Wirkung.
</p><p>Verwandt sind die so genannten „sprungfähigen Systeme“, bei denen die Wirkung tatsächlich gleichzeitig mit der Ursache entsteht. Die meisten realen Systeme sind nicht sprungfähig, da sie eine Trägheit aufweisen. Z.B. auch ein elektrisches Signal an einem Sensor kann nicht plötzlich ohne jeden Zeitverzug ansteigen, da ja immer kleine Signalverzögerungen wirken, z.&nbsp;B. durch Kapazitäten in Leitungen oder Bauteilen.
</p><p>Sprungfähige Systeme können z.&nbsp;B. nur mit Vorsicht mit Differentialgleichungen behandelt werden, da die internen Zustände auf einen plötzlichen Eingang mit unendlicher Steigung reagieren. Aber Sprungfähigkeit bzw. Gleichzeitigkeit ist bei LZI-Systemen durchaus erlaubt.
</p><p>Kausalität gilt auch für Systeme ohne Eingangsgröße <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle u(t)}">
<semantics>
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<mi>u</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle u(t)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/b375df3b65d282f8715835dc91ccb22f46993959.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:3.979ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle u(t)}" loading="lazy"></span>. Die Ursache für den Zeitablauf der Ausgangsgröße ist dann der Startwert der internen Zustandsgrößen <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x(t_{0})}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<msub>
<mi>t</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x(t_{0})}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/30dccfced64263036f1ce61e61cb0219d1cf48de.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:5.033ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x(t_{0})}" loading="lazy"></span>. Das ist die so genannte <a href="Eigenbewegung_(Regelungstechnik)" title="Eigenbewegung (Regelungstechnik)">Eigenbewegung</a> des Systems.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Frequenzantwort">Frequenzantwort</h3></div>
<p>Die Antwort eines LZI-Systems auf ein sinusförmiges Eingangssignal ist ebenfalls sinusförmig und hat die gleiche Frequenz. Ein LZI-System kann keine neuen Frequenzen erzeugen (z.&nbsp;B. <a href="Harmonische" title="Harmonische">Oberwellen</a>). Es kann nur die Amplitude des Eingangs-Sinus verändern und eine Zeitverschiebung hinzufügen (Phasengang). Diese Signal-Veränderungen sind oft abhängig von der Frequenz und werden in einem <a href="Bode-Diagramm" title="Bode-Diagramm">Bode-Diagramm</a> visualisiert.
</p><p>Nichtlineare Systeme führen dagegen zu einer Signalverzerrung und zu weiteren Frequenzen im Ausgangssignal (<a href="Klirrfaktor" title="Klirrfaktor">Klirrfaktor</a>).
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Punktkonzentriert">Punktkonzentriert</h3></div>
<p>LZI-Systeme sind Punktkonzentriert, das bedeutet räumliche Ausdehnungen der Energiespeicher in den Systemen spielen keine Rolle. Wenn räumliche Aspekte nicht vernachlässigbar sind, dann benötigt man aufwändigere Mathematik wie z.&nbsp;B. partielle Differentialgleichungen. Als Beispiel sei die Temperaturspeicherung einer Heizwalze gegeben. Bei lokaler Erhitzung breitet sich die Wärme langsam über die Breite der Walze aus: Die Zeitfunktion der Erwärmung hat auch eine ortsabhängige Komponente und hängt auch vom Wärmehaushalt an entfernteren Stellen ab. Bei punktkonzentrierten Systemen werden derartige Aspekte vereinfacht betrachtet.
</p><p>Punktkonzentrierte Systeme bilden also kein „Kontinuum“, sondern haben eine endliche Anzahl interner Freiheitsgrade bzw. Energiespeicher.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kommutativität_bei_Signalflussplan-Umformungen"><span id="Kommutativit.C3.A4t_bei_Signalflussplan-Umformungen"></span>Kommutativität bei Signalflussplan-Umformungen</h3></div>
<div class="hauptartikel" role="navigation"><span class="hauptartikel-pfeil" title="siehe" aria-hidden="true" role="presentation">→&nbsp;</span><i><span class="hauptartikel-text">Hauptartikel</span>: <a href="Signalflussplan" title="Signalflussplan">Signalflussplan</a></i></div><p>LZI-Systeme sind im <a href="Signalflussplan" title="Signalflussplan">Signalflussplan</a> besonders leicht handhabbar: Beispielsweise können sie vertauscht werden und nach relativ einfachen Regeln innerhalb vom Plan verschoben werden. Durch die <a href="Kommutativit%C3%A4t" class="mw-redirect" title="Kommutativität">Kommutativität</a> lässt sich ein Signalflussplan vereinfachen oder übersichtlicher organisieren. Auch Berechnungen anhand des Signalflussplans fallen leichter.
</p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="LZI-Systeme_in_verschiedenen_Darstellungen">LZI-Systeme in verschiedenen Darstellungen</h2></div>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Zustandsraumdarstellung_im_Zeitbereich_(kontinuierlich)"><span id="Zustandsraumdarstellung_im_Zeitbereich_.28kontinuierlich.29"></span>Zustandsraumdarstellung im Zeitbereich (kontinuierlich)</h3></div>
<table class="infobox wikitable toptextcells float-right" cellspacing="5" style="font-size:95%; text-align:left; min-width:190px; max-width:300px; width:30%;">

<tbody><tr style="font-size:110%; text-align:center;">
<th colspan="2" class="hintergrundfarbe6" style="padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.5em; color:#202122;">Formelzeichen
</th></tr>



<tr>
<th><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>A</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/7daff47fa58cdfd29dc333def748ff5fa4c923e3.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.743ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A}" loading="lazy"></span>
</th>
<td> Systemmatrix
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle B}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>B</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle B}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/47136aad860d145f75f3eed3022df827cee94d7a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.764ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle B}" loading="lazy"></span>
</th>
<td> Eingangsmatrix
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle C}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>C</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle C}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/4fc55753007cd3c18576f7933f6f089196732029.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.766ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle C}" loading="lazy"></span>
</th>
<td> Ausgangsmatrix
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle D}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>D</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle D}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f34a0c600395e5d4345287e21fb26efd386990e6.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.924ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle D}" loading="lazy"></span>
</th>
<td> Durchgangsmatrix
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle _{d}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle _{d}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/e39c6ad7716097ee9cdf28f69a8bef9832a04399.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.092ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle _{d}}" loading="lazy"></span>
</th>
<td> für zeitdiskretes System
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle t}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>t</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle t}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/65658b7b223af9e1acc877d848888ecdb4466560.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.84ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle t}" loading="lazy"></span>
</th>
<td> Kontinuierliche Zeit
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle k}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>k</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle k}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/c3c9a2c7b599b37105512c5d570edc034056dd40.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.211ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle k}" loading="lazy"></span>
</th>
<td> Diskrete Zeit
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle t_{0}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>t</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle t_{0}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/02d3006c4190b1939b04d9b9bb21006fb4e6fa4a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.894ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle t_{0}}" loading="lazy"></span>
<p><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x(t_{0})}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<msub>
<mi>t</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x(t_{0})}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/30dccfced64263036f1ce61e61cb0219d1cf48de.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:5.033ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x(t_{0})}" loading="lazy"></span>
</p>
</th>
<td> Kontinuierliche Anfangszeit
<p>Anfangszustand
</p>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>T</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/ec7200acd984a1d3a3d7dc455e262fbe54f7f6e0.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.636ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle T}" loading="lazy"></span>
</th>
<td> Zeitkonstante eines Systems 1. Ordnung
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle DT}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>D</mi>
<mi>T</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle DT}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/4d0768cf45fb3d0a0bc4166b94146da1ae797372.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:3.561ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle DT}" loading="lazy"></span>
</th>
<td> Abtastzeit des diskreten Systems
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle k=0}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>k</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle k=0}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/6307c8a99dad7d0bcb712352ae0a748bd99a038b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.472ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle k=0}" loading="lazy"></span>
<p><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x(0)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x(0)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/8f7176643e6d36fa7674dc79fdff1a4daa068f5d.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.301ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x(0)}" loading="lazy"></span>
</p>
</th>
<td> Diskrete Anfangszeit
<p>Anfangszustand
</p>
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<div class="hauptartikel" role="navigation"><span class="hauptartikel-pfeil" title="siehe" aria-hidden="true" role="presentation">→&nbsp;</span><i><span class="hauptartikel-text">Hauptartikel</span>: <a href="Zustandsraumdarstellung#Lineare_Zustandsgleichungen" title="Zustandsraumdarstellung">Zustandsraumdarstellung#Lineare_Zustandsgleichungen</a></i></div><p>Die gebräuchlichste Systemdarstellung für zeitkontinuierliche stetige Systeme (sog. Differentialsysteme) im <a href="Zeitbereich" class="mw-redirect" title="Zeitbereich">Zeitbereich</a> beruht auf <a href="Inhomogene_lineare_Differentialgleichung" title="Inhomogene lineare Differentialgleichung">inhomogenen linearen Differentialgleichungen</a> mit konstanten Koeffizienten und hat in <a href="Zustandsraumdarstellung" title="Zustandsraumdarstellung">Zustandsraumdarstellung</a> die Form
</p><dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{matrix}{\dot {x}}(t)=A\ x(t)+B\ u(t)\\y(t)=C\ x(t)+D\ u(t)\end{matrix}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em">
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo>˙<!-- ˙ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>A</mi>
<mtext>&nbsp;</mtext>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>B</mi>
<mtext>&nbsp;</mtext>
<mi>u</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mtd>
</mtr>
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mi>y</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>C</mi>
<mtext>&nbsp;</mtext>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>D</mi>
<mtext>&nbsp;</mtext>
<mi>u</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mtd>
</mtr>
</mtable>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{matrix}{\dot {x}}(t)=A\ x(t)+B\ u(t)\\y(t)=C\ x(t)+D\ u(t)\end{matrix}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/381d8f7ee7b715298ad587e797d2c0ca933c90f2.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:23.304ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{matrix}{\dot {x}}(t)=A\ x(t)+B\ u(t)\\y(t)=C\ x(t)+D\ u(t)\end{matrix}}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Diese Formeln gelten sowohl für <a href="Mehrgr%C3%B6%C3%9Fensystem" class="mw-redirect" title="Mehrgrößensystem">Mehrgrößensysteme</a> als auch für <a href="Eingr%C3%B6%C3%9Fensystem" class="mw-redirect" title="Eingrößensystem">Eingrößensysteme</a>. Im Grenzfall ist das System eindimensional (erster Ordnung). Dann sind die Vektoren und Matrizen nur skalare Größen.
</p><p>Die Matrix <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle D}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>D</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle D}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f34a0c600395e5d4345287e21fb26efd386990e6.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.924ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle D}" loading="lazy"></span> wird für sprungfähige Systeme benötigt, d.&nbsp;h., wenn der System-Ausgang ohne Zeitverzug auf einen Systemeingang reagieren kann.
</p><p>Die allgemeine Lösung dieses <a href="Differentialgleichung#Systeme_von_Differentialgleichungen" title="Differentialgleichung">Differentialgleichungssystems</a> erhält man direkt über die Lösung des homogenen DGL-Systems und anschließende <a href="Variation_der_Konstanten" title="Variation der Konstanten">Variation der Konstanten</a> oder indirekt mit Hilfe der <a href="Laplace-Transformation" title="Laplace-Transformation">Laplace-Transformation</a>. Sie liefert Zustands- und Ausgangsvektor als <a href="Vektorwertige_Funktion" title="Vektorwertige Funktion">Vektorfunktionen</a> zur Zeit <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle t}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>t</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle t}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/65658b7b223af9e1acc877d848888ecdb4466560.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.84ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle t}" loading="lazy"></span> in Abhängigkeit vom Vektor der Eingangssignale und vom Vektor des Anfangszustands zur Zeit <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle t_{0}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>t</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle t_{0}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/02d3006c4190b1939b04d9b9bb21006fb4e6fa4a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.894ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle t_{0}}" loading="lazy"></span>:
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x(t)=e^{{A}(t-t_{0})}x(t_{0})+\int _{t_{0}}^{t}{e^{{A}(t-\tau )}{Bu}(\tau )}d\tau }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<msup>
<mi>e</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>A</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<msub>
<mi>t</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<msub>
<mi>t</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>+</mo>
<msubsup>
<mo>∫<!-- ∫ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<msub>
<mi>t</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>t</mi>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<msup>
<mi>e</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>A</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>τ<!-- τ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>B</mi>
<mi>u</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>τ<!-- τ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
<mi>d</mi>
<mi>τ<!-- τ --></mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x(t)=e^{{A}(t-t_{0})}x(t_{0})+\int _{t_{0}}^{t}{e^{{A}(t-\tau )}{Bu}(\tau )}d\tau }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/703ce639cf2b17834deb6d0d7e73385b9dea2450.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.671ex; width:40.825ex; height:6.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x(t)=e^{{A}(t-t_{0})}x(t_{0})+\int _{t_{0}}^{t}{e^{{A}(t-\tau )}{Bu}(\tau )}d\tau }" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle y(t)=Ce^{{A}(t-t_{0})}x(t_{0})+C\int _{t_{0}}^{t}{e^{{A}(t-\tau )}{Bu}(\tau )}d\tau +Du(t)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>y</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>C</mi>
<msup>
<mi>e</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>A</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<msub>
<mi>t</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<msub>
<mi>t</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>C</mi>
<msubsup>
<mo>∫<!-- ∫ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<msub>
<mi>t</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>t</mi>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<msup>
<mi>e</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>A</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>τ<!-- τ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>B</mi>
<mi>u</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>τ<!-- τ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
<mi>d</mi>
<mi>τ<!-- τ --></mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>D</mi>
<mi>u</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle y(t)=Ce^{{A}(t-t_{0})}x(t_{0})+C\int _{t_{0}}^{t}{e^{{A}(t-\tau )}{Bu}(\tau )}d\tau +Du(t)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/11aa03d0257abf0850fbf78b9e19d848fadc6e58.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.671ex; width:53.314ex; height:6.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle y(t)=Ce^{{A}(t-t_{0})}x(t_{0})+C\int _{t_{0}}^{t}{e^{{A}(t-\tau )}{Bu}(\tau )}d\tau +Du(t)}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Für den konkreten Fall muss das <a href="Integralrechnung" title="Integralrechnung">Integral</a> gelöst und bei mehrdimensionaler Zustandsgröße die als <a href="Matrixexponential" title="Matrixexponential">Matrixexponential</a> geschriebene Übergangsmatrix <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Phi (t)=e^{At}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi mathvariant="normal">Φ<!-- Φ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<msup>
<mi>e</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>A</mi>
<mi>t</mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Phi (t)=e^{At}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/746fb5c70360a83ff06dfae5696306deb43f4074.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:10.567ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Phi (t)=e^{At}}" loading="lazy"></span> ermittelt werden. Letzteres ist beispielsweise mit Hilfe des <a href="Satz_von_Cayley-Hamilton" title="Satz von Cayley-Hamilton">Cayley-Hamilton-Theorems</a>, durch <a href="Diagonalisierbare_Matrix#Diagonalisierung" title="Diagonalisierbare Matrix">Diagonalisierung</a> der Zustandsmatrix oder mithilfe der <a href="Laplace-Transformation" title="Laplace-Transformation">Laplace-Transformation</a> möglich.<sup id="cite_ref-rust1_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rust1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p><b>Beispiel:</b> Für ein <a href="PT1-Glied" title="PT1-Glied">System 1. Ordnung</a> mit der Zeitkonstante <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>T</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/ec7200acd984a1d3a3d7dc455e262fbe54f7f6e0.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.636ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle T}" loading="lazy"></span> und dem Verstärkungsfaktor <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle K}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>K</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle K}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/2b76fce82a62ed5461908f0dc8f037de4e3686b0.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.066ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle K}" loading="lazy"></span> sind die Systemparameter gegeben durch <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A=-1/T}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>A</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>/</mo>
</mrow>
<mi>T</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A=-1/T}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/b420acd5d4f5a169486eda5c480e213c2ad6a2d3.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:10.611ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A=-1/T}" loading="lazy"></span>, <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle B=K/T}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>B</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>K</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>/</mo>
</mrow>
<mi>T</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle B=K/T}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/3d4ca12a93b1a7fea997f45b3e6ba4053ce12a4d.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:9.727ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle B=K/T}" loading="lazy"></span>, <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle C=1}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>C</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle C=1}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/605a443c472808db9a502a801b8a2dfa5ee15d08.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:6.027ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle C=1}" loading="lazy"></span> und <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle D=0}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>D</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle D=0}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/d375dfda80ee8df1d1d7aa8b962114044e464305.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:6.185ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle D=0}" loading="lazy"></span>. Für eine Sprungantwort zum Zeitpunkt <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle t_{0}=0}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>t</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle t_{0}=0}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/129dee73708133aabd89cd4adf5f38ebcaf23a86.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:6.155ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle t_{0}=0}" loading="lazy"></span> mit der Amplitude <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle U_{0}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>U</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle U_{0}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/52116e300c6199496d7b4a60d417ba34a4e569dc.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.642ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle U_{0}}" loading="lazy"></span> und dem Anfangszustand <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x(0)=0}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x(0)=0}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/19f519ea5873571dc27ee09e1a2892a22af7c7a7.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:8.562ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x(0)=0}" loading="lazy"></span> erhält man nach Ausführung der Integration das Ergebnis für den Zeitverlauf des Zustandes <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x(t)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x(t)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/d54c275db3a1e620737b58e143b0818107fa5f5c.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:3.979ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x(t)}" loading="lazy"></span> für <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle t\geq 0}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>t</mi>
<mo>≥<!-- ≥ --></mo>
<mn>0</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle t\geq 0}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/248525429e9cd266f53ab8c52d17bc206c546060.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:5.101ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle t\geq 0}" loading="lazy"></span>:
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle y(t)=x(t)=K(1-e^{-t/T})\cdot U_{0}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>y</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>K</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<msup>
<mi>e</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>/</mo>
</mrow>
<mi>T</mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<msub>
<mi>U</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle y(t)=x(t)=K(1-e^{-t/T})\cdot U_{0}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/74b8b0909769872bd56c9f0c2c1743e45d164115.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:31.346ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle y(t)=x(t)=K(1-e^{-t/T})\cdot U_{0}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Zustandsraumdarstellung_im_Zeitbereich_(diskret)"><span id="Zustandsraumdarstellung_im_Zeitbereich_.28diskret.29"></span>Zustandsraumdarstellung im Zeitbereich (diskret)</h3></div>
<div class="hauptartikel" role="navigation"><span class="hauptartikel-pfeil" title="siehe" aria-hidden="true" role="presentation">→&nbsp;</span><i><span class="hauptartikel-text">Hauptartikel</span>: <a href="Zustandsraumdarstellung#Lineare_Zustandsgleichungen" title="Zustandsraumdarstellung">Zustandsraumdarstellung#Lineare_Zustandsgleichungen</a></i></div><p>Die entsprechende Systemdarstellung für zeitdiskrete Mehr- und Eingrößensysteme beruht auf <a href="Lineare_Differenzengleichung" title="Lineare Differenzengleichung">linearen Differenzengleichungen</a> mit konstanten Koeffizienten und hat die Form:<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x(k+1)=A_{d}\ x(k)+B_{d}\ u(k)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>k</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<msub>
<mi>A</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mtext>&nbsp;</mtext>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>k</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>+</mo>
<msub>
<mi>B</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mtext>&nbsp;</mtext>
<mi>u</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>k</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x(k+1)=A_{d}\ x(k)+B_{d}\ u(k)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/7025f0db6ced36feb1df02c1b8361060155c8c60.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:29.845ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x(k+1)=A_{d}\ x(k)+B_{d}\ u(k)}" loading="lazy"></span></dd>
<dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle y(k)=C\ x(k)+D\ u(k)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>y</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>k</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>C</mi>
<mtext>&nbsp;</mtext>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>k</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>D</mi>
<mtext>&nbsp;</mtext>
<mi>u</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>k</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle y(k)=C\ x(k)+D\ u(k)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/9834707593ba74780f63d190335d7d3604bdfb0b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:23.667ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle y(k)=C\ x(k)+D\ u(k)}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Die Lösung des Differenzengleichungssystems erhält man als Summe der <a href="Lineare_Differenzengleichung#Lösung_der_homogenen_Gleichung" title="Lineare Differenzengleichung">Lösung des homogenen Systems</a> und einer partikulären Lösung, die man mit der <a href="Lineare_Differenzengleichung#Partikuläre_Lösung" title="Lineare Differenzengleichung">Ansatzmethode</a> ermittelt, oder indirekt mit Hilfe der <a href="Z-Transformation" title="Z-Transformation">z-Transformation</a> oder einer anderen <a href="Operatorenrechnung#Diskrete_Operatorenrechnungen" title="Operatorenrechnung">diskreten Operatorenrechnung</a>. Sie liefert Zustands- und Ausgangsvektor als Vektorfunktionen zum diskreten Zeitpunkt <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle k}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>k</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle k}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/c3c9a2c7b599b37105512c5d570edc034056dd40.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.211ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle k}" loading="lazy"></span> in Abhängigkeit vom Vektor der Eingangssignale und vom Vektor des Anfangszustands zur Zeit <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 0}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mn>0</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 0}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/2aae8864a3c1fec9585261791a809ddec1489950.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.162ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 0}" loading="lazy"></span>:<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x(k)=A_{d}^{k}\ x(0)+{\sum _{i=0}^{k-1}}A_{d}^{k-i-1}\ B_{d}\ u(i)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>k</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<msubsup>
<mi>A</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>k</mi>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<mtext>&nbsp;</mtext>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>+</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<munderover>
<mo>∑<!-- ∑ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>i</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>k</mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</munderover>
</mrow>
<msubsup>
<mi>A</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>k</mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>i</mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<mtext>&nbsp;</mtext>
<msub>
<mi>B</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mtext>&nbsp;</mtext>
<mi>u</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>i</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x(k)=A_{d}^{k}\ x(0)+{\sum _{i=0}^{k-1}}A_{d}^{k-i-1}\ B_{d}\ u(i)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/371ec1273668acc9121e0e9b6a36e4a53fcbde99.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.005ex; width:36.098ex; height:7.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x(k)=A_{d}^{k}\ x(0)+{\sum _{i=0}^{k-1}}A_{d}^{k-i-1}\ B_{d}\ u(i)}" loading="lazy"></span></dd>
<dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle y(k)=C\ A_{d}^{k}\ x(0)+C\ {\sum _{i=0}^{k-1}}A_{d}^{k-i-1}\ B_{d}\ u(i)+D\ u(k)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>y</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>k</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>C</mi>
<mtext>&nbsp;</mtext>
<msubsup>
<mi>A</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>k</mi>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<mtext>&nbsp;</mtext>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>C</mi>
<mtext>&nbsp;</mtext>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<munderover>
<mo>∑<!-- ∑ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>i</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>k</mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</munderover>
</mrow>
<msubsup>
<mi>A</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>k</mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>i</mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<mtext>&nbsp;</mtext>
<msub>
<mi>B</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mtext>&nbsp;</mtext>
<mi>u</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>i</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>D</mi>
<mtext>&nbsp;</mtext>
<mi>u</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>k</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle y(k)=C\ A_{d}^{k}\ x(0)+C\ {\sum _{i=0}^{k-1}}A_{d}^{k-i-1}\ B_{d}\ u(i)+D\ u(k)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/69a17b5060b120dfb27bcbea76022b3abc889ede.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.005ex; width:50.314ex; height:7.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle y(k)=C\ A_{d}^{k}\ x(0)+C\ {\sum _{i=0}^{k-1}}A_{d}^{k-i-1}\ B_{d}\ u(i)+D\ u(k)}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Für den konkreten Fall müssen die <a href="Matrixpotenz" title="Matrixpotenz">Matrixpotenz</a> der Übergangsmatrix <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Phi _{d}(k)=A_{d}^{k}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi mathvariant="normal">Φ<!-- Φ --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>k</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<msubsup>
<mi>A</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>k</mi>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Phi _{d}(k)=A_{d}^{k}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/7debf30f31db8f201b6406d3eae853735bf7aa01.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:11.724ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Phi _{d}(k)=A_{d}^{k}}" loading="lazy"></span> ermittelt und Summe explizit berechnet werden.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Abtastsysteme">Abtastsysteme</h4></div>
<p>Zeitdiskrete Systeme sind in der Regel eigentlich kontinuierlich, aber die Werte von <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x,u,y}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>x</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>u</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>y</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x,u,y}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/b1202015d919259c53b3a3923ac4cd60f5e617fb.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:5.883ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x,u,y}" loading="lazy"></span> sind nur zu bestimmten Zeitpunkten bekannt. Gleichwertige Schreibweisen sind z.&nbsp;B. für x:
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x(k)=x_{k}=x\ zum\ Zeitpunkt\ k}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>k</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<msub>
<mi>x</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>k</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>x</mi>
<mtext>&nbsp;</mtext>
<mi>z</mi>
<mi>u</mi>
<mi>m</mi>
<mtext>&nbsp;</mtext>
<mi>Z</mi>
<mi>e</mi>
<mi>i</mi>
<mi>t</mi>
<mi>p</mi>
<mi>u</mi>
<mi>n</mi>
<mi>k</mi>
<mi>t</mi>
<mtext>&nbsp;</mtext>
<mi>k</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x(k)=x_{k}=x\ zum\ Zeitpunkt\ k}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/0acbe23422b38c9a47ef929189d421921ff5acb3.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:32.057ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x(k)=x_{k}=x\ zum\ Zeitpunkt\ k}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Digitale Mess- oder Steuerungs-Systeme „<a href="Abtastung_(Signalverarbeitung)" title="Abtastung (Signalverarbeitung)">tasten</a>“ kontinuierliche Mess-Signale in <a href="Abtastrate" title="Abtastrate">regelmäßigen Zeitabständen</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle DT}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>D</mi>
<mi>T</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle DT}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/4d0768cf45fb3d0a0bc4166b94146da1ae797372.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:3.561ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle DT}" loading="lazy"></span> ab. Digitalrechner berechnen nicht messbare Größen zu den Abtastzeitpunkten <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle k+1}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>k</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle k+1}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/552a558062ed4c0486297b5b5531c5ee044dbd9b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:5.214ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle k+1}" loading="lazy"></span> aus den Werten, die bei der vorhergehenden Abtastung <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle k}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>k</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle k}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/c3c9a2c7b599b37105512c5d570edc034056dd40.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.211ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle k}" loading="lazy"></span> gemessen wurden. Man nennt zeitdiskrete Systeme in der Regelungstechnik daher auch Abtastsysteme.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Wenn die Eingangsgröße <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle u(k)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>u</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>k</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle u(k)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/2a27cb9223a4d0dac9b506e94d6b4c0848773bf9.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.35ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle u(k)}" loading="lazy"></span> durch einen Digitalregler erzeugt wurde (Stellsignal), dann wird sie in der Regel in der physikalischen realen Welt zu einem treppenförmigen kontinuierlichen Signal <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle u(t)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>u</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle u(t)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/b375df3b65d282f8715835dc91ccb22f46993959.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:3.979ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle u(t)}" loading="lazy"></span>. Der Digitalregler ändert den Wert dieses Signals an den Abtastzeitpunkten - und in den Zwischenpunkten ist das Signal konstant. Dieses Verhalten von Signalausgängen wird auch <a href="Sample-and-Hold-Schaltung" title="Sample-and-Hold-Schaltung">Sample-and-Hold</a> genannt.
</p><p>Die Lösung des kontinuierlichen Systems wird mit dem Gedanken des „Sample-and-Hold“ anwendbar auf diskrete Systeme: Jeder Zeitbereich zwischen zwei Abtastungen kann als Sprungantwort aufgefasst werden: Der Anfang dieses Zeitbereichs entspricht der Anfangsbedingung zum Zeitpunkt <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle k}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>k</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle k}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/c3c9a2c7b599b37105512c5d570edc034056dd40.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.211ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle k}" loading="lazy"></span>, das Ende des Zeitbereichs liefert die berechneten Größen zum Zeitpunkt <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle k+1}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>k</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle k+1}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/552a558062ed4c0486297b5b5531c5ee044dbd9b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:5.214ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle k+1}" loading="lazy"></span>.
</p><p>Die Lösung der Differenzengleichung für die Abtastzeitpunkte <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle k+1}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>k</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle k+1}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/552a558062ed4c0486297b5b5531c5ee044dbd9b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.505ex; width:5.214ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle k+1}" loading="lazy"></span> in Abhängigkeit vom Eingangsvektor und den Bedingungen zum Zeitpunkt <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle k}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>k</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle k}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/c3c9a2c7b599b37105512c5d570edc034056dd40.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.211ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle k}" loading="lazy"></span> ist dann:<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x_{k+1}=e^{AT}x_{k}+\int _{t_{k}}^{t_{k+1}}{e^{{A}(t_{k+1}-\tau )}d\tau \ B\ u_{k}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>x</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>k</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<msup>
<mi>e</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>A</mi>
<mi>T</mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<msub>
<mi>x</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>k</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>+</mo>
<msubsup>
<mo>∫<!-- ∫ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<msub>
<mi>t</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>k</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<msub>
<mi>t</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>k</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<msup>
<mi>e</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>A</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<msub>
<mi>t</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>k</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>τ<!-- τ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mi>d</mi>
<mi>τ<!-- τ --></mi>
<mtext>&nbsp;</mtext>
<mi>B</mi>
<mtext>&nbsp;</mtext>
<msub>
<mi>u</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>k</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x_{k+1}=e^{AT}x_{k}+\int _{t_{k}}^{t_{k+1}}{e^{{A}(t_{k+1}-\tau )}d\tau \ B\ u_{k}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/212a1aad47d58e7c5e1ad02fade374b874eff4e3.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.671ex; width:39.7ex; height:6.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x_{k+1}=e^{AT}x_{k}+\int _{t_{k}}^{t_{k+1}}{e^{{A}(t_{k+1}-\tau )}d\tau \ B\ u_{k}}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Diese Lösung, abgeleitet aus der kontinuierlichen Differentialgleichung ist also von der Form:
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x_{k+1}=A_{d}x_{k}+B_{d}u_{k}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>x</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>k</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<msub>
<mi>A</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<msub>
<mi>x</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>k</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>+</mo>
<msub>
<mi>B</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<msub>
<mi>u</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>k</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x_{k+1}=A_{d}x_{k}+B_{d}u_{k}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/e04f3f13ba1ef826c7f025ca6e29baffe530601e.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:20.986ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x_{k+1}=A_{d}x_{k}+B_{d}u_{k}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>wobei sich die Parameter <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A_{d},B_{d}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>A</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>,</mo>
<msub>
<mi>B</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A_{d},B_{d}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a401ca5e4722b708b589356f19363702145f5670.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:6.725ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A_{d},B_{d}}" loading="lazy"></span> des diskreten Systems aus den Parametern <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A,B}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>A</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>B</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A,B}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/96c3298ea9aa77c226be56a7d8515baaa517b90b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:4.541ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A,B}" loading="lazy"></span> des kontinuierlichen Systems berechnen lassen:
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A_{d}=e^{AT}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>A</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<msup>
<mi>e</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>A</mi>
<mi>T</mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A_{d}=e^{AT}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/5018f81b02e80352bde76c0a9c57ee80d9da86d0.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:9.639ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A_{d}=e^{AT}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle B_{d}=\int _{t_{k}}^{t_{k+1}}{e^{{A}(t_{k+1}-\tau )}d\tau \ B}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>B</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>=</mo>
<msubsup>
<mo>∫<!-- ∫ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<msub>
<mi>t</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>k</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<msub>
<mi>t</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>k</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<msup>
<mi>e</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>A</mi>
</mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<msub>
<mi>t</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>k</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>τ<!-- τ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mi>d</mi>
<mi>τ<!-- τ --></mi>
<mtext>&nbsp;</mtext>
<mi>B</mi>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle B_{d}=\int _{t_{k}}^{t_{k+1}}{e^{{A}(t_{k+1}-\tau )}d\tau \ B}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f747039af26b21940e01846a6a90a466afd27c4d.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.671ex; width:26.074ex; height:6.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle B_{d}=\int _{t_{k}}^{t_{k+1}}{e^{{A}(t_{k+1}-\tau )}d\tau \ B}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p><b>Beispiel:</b> Für ein System 1.Ordnung mit der Zeitkonstante <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>T</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/ec7200acd984a1d3a3d7dc455e262fbe54f7f6e0.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.636ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle T}" loading="lazy"></span> und Verstärkungsfaktor <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle =1}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle =1}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/282a76fe69ce05e31352dfd19b7700eb784fb3f8.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:3.616ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle =1}" loading="lazy"></span> sind die Systemparameter des kontinuierlichen Systems gegeben durch <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A=-1/T}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>A</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>/</mo>
</mrow>
<mi>T</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A=-1/T}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/b420acd5d4f5a169486eda5c480e213c2ad6a2d3.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:10.611ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A=-1/T}" loading="lazy"></span> und <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle B=1/T}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>B</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>/</mo>
</mrow>
<mi>T</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle B=1/T}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/1f5244980ef700fb3304daaded65d8fddbed1060.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:8.824ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle B=1/T}" loading="lazy"></span>. Die Parameter <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A_{d},B_{d}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>A</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>,</mo>
<msub>
<mi>B</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A_{d},B_{d}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a401ca5e4722b708b589356f19363702145f5670.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:6.725ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A_{d},B_{d}}" loading="lazy"></span> des diskreten Systems lassen sich dann z.&nbsp;B. durch folgende Formeln berechnen:
</p>
<dl><dd><table class="wikitable">
<tbody><tr>
<th>Berechnung der Parameter eines diskreten Systems 1. Ordnung
</th>
<th><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A_{d}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>A</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A_{d}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/9e4c67aa7c46d8276c9805b1036cd4c2e9887d0f.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.835ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A_{d}}" loading="lazy"></span>
</th>
<th><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle B_{d}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>B</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle B_{d}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/8152ba18cface59883b0d177b0295a249b6433db.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.856ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle B_{d}}" loading="lazy"></span>
</th></tr>
<tr>
<td>Exakte Berechnung (aus Vergleich der Lösungsformeln)
</td>
<td><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle e^{-DT/T}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mi>e</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>D</mi>
<mi>T</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>/</mo>
</mrow>
<mi>T</mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle e^{-DT/T}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/8ff9d6971ff49a9e1c539dc1bb279b3564fc57ed.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:7.091ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle e^{-DT/T}}" loading="lazy"></span>
</td>
<td><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 1-A_{d}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mn>1</mn>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<msub>
<mi>A</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 1-A_{d}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/e9a1273b67362d47123545912a14378b1bc1fa10.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:6.838ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 1-A_{d}}" loading="lazy"></span>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Lineare Näherung (nach Linearisierung der e-Funktion)
</td>
<td><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 1-{DT \over T}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mn>1</mn>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<mi>D</mi>
<mi>T</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>T</mi>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 1-{DT \over T}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/5ef89e30b4c2f8033d50165b21bfd0305afad79f.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:8.4ex; height:5.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 1-{DT \over T}}" loading="lazy"></span>
</td>
<td><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 1-A_{d}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mn>1</mn>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<msub>
<mi>A</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 1-A_{d}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/e9a1273b67362d47123545912a14378b1bc1fa10.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:6.838ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 1-A_{d}}" loading="lazy"></span>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Lineare Näherung (durch Anwendung des Differenzenquotienten)
</td>
<td><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {1 \over 1+DT/T}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mn>1</mn>
<mrow>
<mn>1</mn>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>D</mi>
<mi>T</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>/</mo>
</mrow>
<mi>T</mi>
</mrow>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {1 \over 1+DT/T}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/eebe085853086f5ae95d024cb9a508c6dd30f071.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.671ex; width:11.198ex; height:6.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {1 \over 1+DT/T}}" loading="lazy"></span>
</td>
<td><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 1-A_{d}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mn>1</mn>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<msub>
<mi>A</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 1-A_{d}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/e9a1273b67362d47123545912a14378b1bc1fa10.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:6.838ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 1-A_{d}}" loading="lazy"></span>
</td></tr>
<tr>
<td>Bilineare Näherung (Tustin-Formel, Trapezregel)
</td>
<td><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {{2-DT/T} \over {2+DT/T}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>D</mi>
<mi>T</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>/</mo>
</mrow>
<mi>T</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>D</mi>
<mi>T</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>/</mo>
</mrow>
<mi>T</mi>
</mrow>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {{2-DT/T} \over {2+DT/T}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/d468e8252aa2923ca61fefeebaade394724144ca.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.671ex; width:11.198ex; height:6.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {{2-DT/T} \over {2+DT/T}}}" loading="lazy"></span>
</td>
<td><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 1-A_{d}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mn>1</mn>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<msub>
<mi>A</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 1-A_{d}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/e9a1273b67362d47123545912a14378b1bc1fa10.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:6.838ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 1-A_{d}}" loading="lazy"></span>
</td></tr></tbody></table> Die exakte Berechnung bildet das kontinuierliche Systemverhalten sehr genau ab.</dd></dl>
<dl><dd>Die erste lineare Näherung ergibt sich aus einer Reihenentwicklung der e-Funktion (siehe auch <a href="Matrixexponential" title="Matrixexponential">Matrixexponential</a>) und ist am einfachsten.</dd>
<dd>Die zweite lineare Näherung wird durch Anwendung des Differenzenquotienten auf die DGL hergeleitet.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd>
<dd>Die bilineare Näherung liefert etwas bessere Ergebnisse, als die lineare Näherung, insbesondere, wenn die Abtastzeit <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle DT}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>D</mi>
<mi>T</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle DT}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/4d0768cf45fb3d0a0bc4166b94146da1ae797372.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:3.561ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle DT}" loading="lazy"></span> in der Größenordnung von <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle T}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>T</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle T}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/ec7200acd984a1d3a3d7dc455e262fbe54f7f6e0.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.636ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle T}" loading="lazy"></span> ist.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></dd></dl>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Impulsantwort_(kontinuierlich)"><span id="Impulsantwort_.28kontinuierlich.29"></span>Impulsantwort (kontinuierlich)</h3></div>
<div class="hauptartikel" role="navigation"><span class="hauptartikel-pfeil" title="siehe" aria-hidden="true" role="presentation">→&nbsp;</span><i><span class="hauptartikel-text">Hauptartikel</span>: <a href="Impulsantwort" title="Impulsantwort">Impulsantwort</a></i></div>
<p>Unter einem <a href="Dirac-Impuls" class="mw-redirect" title="Dirac-Impuls">Dirac-Impuls</a> (Einheitsimpuls) <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \delta (t)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>δ<!-- δ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \delta (t)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/c050147a97868286252447ef73515c8108edd398.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:3.698ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \delta (t)}" loading="lazy"></span> versteht man einen einmaligen „unendlich kurzen“ und „unendlich hohen“ Impuls zum Zeitpunkt <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle t=0}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>t</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle t=0}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/43469ec032d858feae5aa87029e22eaaf0109e9c.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.101ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle t=0}" loading="lazy"></span>, wobei die Fläche unter dem Impuls (das Integral, die „Energie“ des Stoßes) genau <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle 1}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mn>1</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle 1}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/92d98b82a3778f043108d4e20960a9193df57cbf.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.162ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle 1}" loading="lazy"></span> ist. Der Dirac-Impuls ist daher keine „normale“ Funktion, sondern eine <a href="Distribution_(Mathematik)" title="Distribution (Mathematik)">Distribution</a>.
</p><p>Die Reaktion eines kontinuierlichen Eingrößensystems auf einen solchen idealen Impuls am Eingang nennt man Impulsantwort, Gewichtsfunktion oder Stoßantwort <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle h(t)={\mathcal {T}}\left\{\delta (t)\right\}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>h</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">T</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<mo>{</mo>
<mrow>
<mi>δ<!-- δ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>}</mo>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle h(t)={\mathcal {T}}\left\{\delta (t)\right\}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/150f8bcb79a95637fd83c05e61204e95a5ae619a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:15.432ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle h(t)={\mathcal {T}}\left\{\delta (t)\right\}}" loading="lazy"></span>.
</p><p>Ein Dirac-Impuls hat die sogenannte „Ausblendeigenschaft“: Bei der Multiplikation von <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle u(t)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>u</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle u(t)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/b375df3b65d282f8715835dc91ccb22f46993959.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:3.979ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle u(t)}" loading="lazy"></span> mit einer Dirac-Impuls-Funktion werden alle Werte von <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle u(t)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>u</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle u(t)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/b375df3b65d282f8715835dc91ccb22f46993959.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:3.979ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle u(t)}" loading="lazy"></span> außerhalb des Impulses ausgeblendet, also gleich Null. Deshalb ist der Wert der Ergebnisfunktion gleich dem Wert von <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle u(t)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>u</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle u(t)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/b375df3b65d282f8715835dc91ccb22f46993959.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:3.979ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle u(t)}" loading="lazy"></span> zum Zeitpunkt des Impulses. Ein beliebig verlaufendes Eingangssignal <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle u(t)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>u</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle u(t)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/b375df3b65d282f8715835dc91ccb22f46993959.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:3.979ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle u(t)}" loading="lazy"></span> kann aufgrund dieser Ausblendeigenschaft als Faltungsintegral oder mit dem Symbol <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle *}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo>∗<!-- ∗ --></mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle *}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/8e9972f426d9e07855984f73ee195a21dbc21755.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: 0.079ex; margin-bottom: -0.25ex; width:1.162ex; height:1.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle *}" loading="lazy"></span> für die <a href="Faltung_(Mathematik)" title="Faltung (Mathematik)">Faltungsoperation</a> geschrieben werden:
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle u(t)=\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }u(\tau )\delta (t-\tau )\mathrm {d} \tau =(u*\delta )(t)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>u</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<msubsup>
<mo>∫<!-- ∫ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi mathvariant="normal">∞<!-- ∞ --></mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">∞<!-- ∞ --></mi>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<mi>u</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>τ<!-- τ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mi>δ<!-- δ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>τ<!-- τ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>τ<!-- τ --></mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>u</mi>
<mo>∗<!-- ∗ --></mo>
<mi>δ<!-- δ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle u(t)=\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }u(\tau )\delta (t-\tau )\mathrm {d} \tau =(u*\delta )(t)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/2666f92d55db75acf4424b461f98afd660fab4be.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:38.616ex; height:6.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle u(t)=\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }u(\tau )\delta (t-\tau )\mathrm {d} \tau =(u*\delta )(t)}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Am Systemausgang kann wegen der Gültigkeit des Superpositionssatzes und der Zeitinvarianz der Systemoperator unter das Integral „geschoben“ werden:
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle y(t)={\mathcal {T}}\left\{u(t)\right\}={\mathcal {T}}\left\{\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }u(\tau )\delta (t-\tau )\mathrm {d} \tau \right\}=\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }u(\tau ){\mathcal {T}}\left\{\delta (t-\tau )\right\}\mathrm {d} \tau }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>y</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">T</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<mo>{</mo>
<mrow>
<mi>u</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>}</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">T</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<mo>{</mo>
<mrow>
<msubsup>
<mo>∫<!-- ∫ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi mathvariant="normal">∞<!-- ∞ --></mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">∞<!-- ∞ --></mi>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<mi>u</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>τ<!-- τ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mi>δ<!-- δ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>τ<!-- τ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>τ<!-- τ --></mi>
</mrow>
<mo>}</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<msubsup>
<mo>∫<!-- ∫ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi mathvariant="normal">∞<!-- ∞ --></mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">∞<!-- ∞ --></mi>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<mi>u</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>τ<!-- τ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">T</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<mo>{</mo>
<mrow>
<mi>δ<!-- δ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>τ<!-- τ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>}</mo>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>τ<!-- τ --></mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle y(t)={\mathcal {T}}\left\{u(t)\right\}={\mathcal {T}}\left\{\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }u(\tau )\delta (t-\tau )\mathrm {d} \tau \right\}=\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }u(\tau ){\mathcal {T}}\left\{\delta (t-\tau )\right\}\mathrm {d} \tau }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/406143e436799b72e693c4967acc5372b494c0f5.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:71.388ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle y(t)={\mathcal {T}}\left\{u(t)\right\}={\mathcal {T}}\left\{\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }u(\tau )\delta (t-\tau )\mathrm {d} \tau \right\}=\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }u(\tau ){\mathcal {T}}\left\{\delta (t-\tau )\right\}\mathrm {d} \tau }" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Das Ausgangssignal <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle y(t)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>y</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle y(t)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/397de1edef5bf2ee15c020f325d7d781a3aa7f50.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:3.804ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle y(t)}" loading="lazy"></span> kann demnach bei Kenntnis der Impulsantwort <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle h(t)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>h</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle h(t)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/66abbb8ae1d9f30bb529739b109e1e5bbe83c626.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:3.988ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle h(t)}" loading="lazy"></span> eines (zeitkontinuierlichen) LZI-Systems als Faltungsintegral mit dem Eingangssignal <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle u(t)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>u</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle u(t)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/b375df3b65d282f8715835dc91ccb22f46993959.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:3.979ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle u(t)}" loading="lazy"></span> dargestellt werden:
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle y(t)=\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }u(\tau )h(t-\tau )\mathrm {d} \tau =(u*h)(t)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>y</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<msubsup>
<mo>∫<!-- ∫ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi mathvariant="normal">∞<!-- ∞ --></mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">∞<!-- ∞ --></mi>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<mi>u</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>τ<!-- τ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mi>h</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>τ<!-- τ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>τ<!-- τ --></mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>u</mi>
<mo>∗<!-- ∗ --></mo>
<mi>h</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle y(t)=\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }u(\tau )h(t-\tau )\mathrm {d} \tau =(u*h)(t)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/32b5615935b4d59707501429ba14c768ac0e4f1b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:39.022ex; height:6.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle y(t)=\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }u(\tau )h(t-\tau )\mathrm {d} \tau =(u*h)(t)}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Deshalb lässt sich ein zeitkontinuierliches Eingrößen-LZI-System durch seine Impulsantwort <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle h(t)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>h</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle h(t)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/66abbb8ae1d9f30bb529739b109e1e5bbe83c626.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:3.988ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle h(t)}" loading="lazy"></span> charakterisieren. Diese repräsentiert damit zusammen mit dem (kommutativen) Faltungsoperator den Systemoperator <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\mathcal {T}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">T</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\mathcal {T}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/8236d074e42310f5dc24d1d2b5b8f5981c3e87ba.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.936ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\mathcal {T}}}" loading="lazy"></span>. Insbesondere ist deren Laplace-Transformierte identisch mit der Übertragungsfunktion des Systems.
</p><p>Beim Mehrgrößensystem werden die Impulsantworten aller Kombinationen der Eingänge und Ausgänge zur Gewichtsmatrix <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle H(t)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>H</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle H(t)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/9d1b6c8837aed2794e7b52afa88ad371f1d275fa.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.713ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle H(t)}" loading="lazy"></span> kombiniert. Aus der allgemeinen Lösung der Zustandsgleichungen kann man diese (unter Beachtung des verschwindenden Anfangszustandes, der Ausblendeigenschaft des Dirac-Impulses und der <a href="Heaviside-Funktion" title="Heaviside-Funktion">Sprungfunktion</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Theta (t)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi mathvariant="normal">Θ<!-- Θ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Theta (t)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/415d180b65fdc75e95cb50e5786e6c56989dd416.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.457ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Theta (t)}" loading="lazy"></span>) sofort ablesen:
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle H(t)=\Theta (t)\ Ce^{At}B+\delta (t)D}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>H</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi mathvariant="normal">Θ<!-- Θ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mtext>&nbsp;</mtext>
<mi>C</mi>
<msup>
<mi>e</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>A</mi>
<mi>t</mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mi>B</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>δ<!-- δ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mi>D</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle H(t)=\Theta (t)\ Ce^{At}B+\delta (t)D}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/ac4d2727a3278d3a464a35ee4f47a4fb5a454aaa.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:27.983ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle H(t)=\Theta (t)\ Ce^{At}B+\delta (t)D}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Für das oben genannte Beispiel eines PT1-Gliedes erhält man daraus
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle h(t)=\Theta (t)\ {\frac {K}{T}}e^{-t/T}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>h</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi mathvariant="normal">Θ<!-- Θ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mtext>&nbsp;</mtext>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mi>K</mi>
<mi>T</mi>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<msup>
<mi>e</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>/</mo>
</mrow>
<mi>T</mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle h(t)=\Theta (t)\ {\frac {K}{T}}e^{-t/T}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/eb1131b0554d2e8b343f5ef00f04f17644c9f343.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.838ex; width:20.193ex; height:5.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle h(t)=\Theta (t)\ {\frac {K}{T}}e^{-t/T}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Neben der Impulsantwort hat ebenfalls die <a href="Sprungantwort" title="Sprungantwort">Sprungantwort</a> für die Beschreibung des Systemverhaltens Bedeutung.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Impulsantwort_(diskret)"><span id="Impulsantwort_.28diskret.29"></span>Impulsantwort (diskret)</h3></div>
<div class="hauptartikel" role="navigation"><span class="hauptartikel-pfeil" title="siehe" aria-hidden="true" role="presentation">→&nbsp;</span><i><span class="hauptartikel-text">Hauptartikel</span>: <a href="Impulsantwort#Die_Impulsantwort_von_zeitdiskreten_Systemen" title="Impulsantwort">Impulsantwort#Die Impulsantwort von zeitdiskreten Systemen</a></i></div>
<p>Der diskrete Einheitsimpuls <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \delta (k)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>δ<!-- δ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>k</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \delta (k)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/506df3167c39471b2f69864a6dd9c81c02b1f39f.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.069ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \delta (k)}" loading="lazy"></span> ist ein „einmaliger Impuls“ der Höhe 1 zum Zeitpunkt 0. Die Reaktion eines diskreten Eingrößensystems auf diesen Impuls am Eingang nennt man (diskrete) Impulsantwort, Gewichtsfunktion oder Stoßantwort <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle h(k)={\mathcal {T}}\left\{\delta (k)\right\}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>h</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>k</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">T</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<mo>{</mo>
<mrow>
<mi>δ<!-- δ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>k</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>}</mo>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle h(k)={\mathcal {T}}\left\{\delta (k)\right\}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/0f517be16fe2df6f7453e4b5b970c72798a59df0.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:16.175ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle h(k)={\mathcal {T}}\left\{\delta (k)\right\}}" loading="lazy"></span>.
</p><p>Eine beliebig verlaufende Eingangsfolge <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle u(k)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>u</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>k</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle u(k)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/2a27cb9223a4d0dac9b506e94d6b4c0848773bf9.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.35ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle u(k)}" loading="lazy"></span> kann als Faltungssumme oder mit dem Symbol <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle *}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo>∗<!-- ∗ --></mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle *}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/8e9972f426d9e07855984f73ee195a21dbc21755.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: 0.079ex; margin-bottom: -0.25ex; width:1.162ex; height:1.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle *}" loading="lazy"></span> für die <a href="Faltung_(Mathematik)#Diskrete_Faltung" title="Faltung (Mathematik)">diskrete Faltung</a> geschrieben werden:
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle u(k)=\sum _{\kappa =-\infty }^{\infty }u(\kappa )\delta (k-\kappa )=(u*\delta )(k)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>u</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>k</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<munderover>
<mo>∑<!-- ∑ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>κ<!-- κ --></mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi mathvariant="normal">∞<!-- ∞ --></mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">∞<!-- ∞ --></mi>
</mrow>
</munderover>
<mi>u</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>κ<!-- κ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mi>δ<!-- δ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>k</mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>κ<!-- κ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>u</mi>
<mo>∗<!-- ∗ --></mo>
<mi>δ<!-- δ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>k</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle u(k)=\sum _{\kappa =-\infty }^{\infty }u(\kappa )\delta (k-\kappa )=(u*\delta )(k)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/603039081be57ddd5837225e86e521b94e44e755.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.005ex; width:38.211ex; height:6.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle u(k)=\sum _{\kappa =-\infty }^{\infty }u(\kappa )\delta (k-\kappa )=(u*\delta )(k)}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Am Systemausgang kann wegen der Gültigkeit des Superpositionssatzes und der Zeitinvarianz der Systemoperator unter das Summenzeichen „geschoben“ werden:
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle y(k)={\mathcal {T}}\left\{u(k)\right\}={\mathcal {T}}\left\{\sum _{\kappa =-\infty }^{\infty }u(\kappa )\delta (k-\kappa )\right\}=\sum _{\kappa =-\infty }^{\infty }u(\kappa ){\mathcal {T}}\left\{\delta (k-\kappa )\right\}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>y</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>k</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">T</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<mo>{</mo>
<mrow>
<mi>u</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>k</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>}</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">T</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<mo>{</mo>
<mrow>
<munderover>
<mo>∑<!-- ∑ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>κ<!-- κ --></mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi mathvariant="normal">∞<!-- ∞ --></mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">∞<!-- ∞ --></mi>
</mrow>
</munderover>
<mi>u</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>κ<!-- κ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mi>δ<!-- δ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>k</mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>κ<!-- κ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>}</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<munderover>
<mo>∑<!-- ∑ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>κ<!-- κ --></mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi mathvariant="normal">∞<!-- ∞ --></mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">∞<!-- ∞ --></mi>
</mrow>
</munderover>
<mi>u</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>κ<!-- κ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">T</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<mo>{</mo>
<mrow>
<mi>δ<!-- δ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>k</mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>κ<!-- κ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>}</mo>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle y(k)={\mathcal {T}}\left\{u(k)\right\}={\mathcal {T}}\left\{\sum _{\kappa =-\infty }^{\infty }u(\kappa )\delta (k-\kappa )\right\}=\sum _{\kappa =-\infty }^{\infty }u(\kappa ){\mathcal {T}}\left\{\delta (k-\kappa )\right\}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f0faa69642ef8238394c6cedacb2c4e434709e19.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.171ex; width:69.708ex; height:7.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle y(k)={\mathcal {T}}\left\{u(k)\right\}={\mathcal {T}}\left\{\sum _{\kappa =-\infty }^{\infty }u(\kappa )\delta (k-\kappa )\right\}=\sum _{\kappa =-\infty }^{\infty }u(\kappa ){\mathcal {T}}\left\{\delta (k-\kappa )\right\}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Das Ausgangssignal <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle y(k)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>y</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>k</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle y(k)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/b2c2364275e2762e7355d8d717af7dd2b1ea976b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.176ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle y(k)}" loading="lazy"></span> kann deshalb bei Kenntnis der Impulsantwort <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle h(k)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>h</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>k</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle h(k)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/3b2a0d0f0ceb795a0eac940780dcf6be46c961dd.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.359ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle h(k)}" loading="lazy"></span> eines zeitdiskreten LZI-Systems als Faltungssumme mit dem Eingangssignal <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle u(k)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>u</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>k</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle u(k)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/2a27cb9223a4d0dac9b506e94d6b4c0848773bf9.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.35ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle u(k)}" loading="lazy"></span> dargestellt werden:
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle y(k)=\sum _{\kappa =-\infty }^{\infty }u(\kappa )h(k-\kappa )=(u*h)(k)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>y</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>k</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<munderover>
<mo>∑<!-- ∑ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>κ<!-- κ --></mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi mathvariant="normal">∞<!-- ∞ --></mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">∞<!-- ∞ --></mi>
</mrow>
</munderover>
<mi>u</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>κ<!-- κ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mi>h</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>k</mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>κ<!-- κ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>u</mi>
<mo>∗<!-- ∗ --></mo>
<mi>h</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>k</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle y(k)=\sum _{\kappa =-\infty }^{\infty }u(\kappa )h(k-\kappa )=(u*h)(k)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/63f9c7bcfef00c19c475183a3b77582b4cffa53a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.005ex; width:38.617ex; height:6.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle y(k)=\sum _{\kappa =-\infty }^{\infty }u(\kappa )h(k-\kappa )=(u*h)(k)}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Deshalb lässt sich ein zeitdiskretes Eingrößen-LZI-System durch seine Impulsantwort <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle h(k)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>h</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>k</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle h(k)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/3b2a0d0f0ceb795a0eac940780dcf6be46c961dd.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.359ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle h(k)}" loading="lazy"></span> charakterisieren.
</p><p>Beim Mehrgrößensystem werden die Impulsantworten aller Kombinationen der Eingänge und Ausgänge zur Gewichtsmatrix <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle H(k)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>H</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>k</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle H(k)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/36f2af3f50945e861217695e00fa662217483fe1.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:5.084ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle H(k)}" loading="lazy"></span> kombiniert. Aus der allgemeinen Lösung der Zustandsgleichungen kann man diese (unter Beachtung des verschwindenden Anfangszustandes und der Ausblendeigenschaft des Einheitsimpulses) sofort ablesen:
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle H(k)={\begin{cases}0&amp;{\text{für}}&amp;k<0\\D&amp;{\text{für}}&amp;k=0\\C\ A_{d}^{k-1}B_{d}&amp;{\text{für}}&amp;k>0\end{cases}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>H</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>k</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow>
<mo>{</mo>
<mtable columnalign="left left" rowspacing=".2em" columnspacing="1em" displaystyle="false">
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mn>0</mn>
</mtd>
<mtd>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mtext>für</mtext>
</mrow>
</mtd>
<mtd>
<mi>k</mi>
<mo>&lt;</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
</mtd>
</mtr>
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mi>D</mi>
</mtd>
<mtd>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mtext>für</mtext>
</mrow>
</mtd>
<mtd>
<mi>k</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
</mtd>
</mtr>
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mi>C</mi>
<mtext>&nbsp;</mtext>
<msubsup>
<mi>A</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>k</mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<msub>
<mi>B</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mtd>
<mtd>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mtext>für</mtext>
</mrow>
</mtd>
<mtd>
<mi>k</mi>
<mo>&gt;</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
</mtd>
</mtr>
</mtable>
<mo fence="true" stretchy="true" symmetric="true"></mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle H(k)={\begin{cases}0&amp;{\text{für}}&amp;k&lt;0\\D&amp;{\text{für}}&amp;k=0\\C\ A_{d}^{k-1}B_{d}&amp;{\text{für}}&amp;k&gt;0\end{cases}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/b5be5c9f490968c105ca18ba9ae6d7018e262007.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -4.671ex; width:34.293ex; height:10.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle H(k)={\begin{cases}0&amp;{\text{für}}&amp;k<0\\D&amp;{\text{für}}&amp;k=0\\C\ A_{d}^{k-1}B_{d}&amp;{\text{für}}&amp;k>0\end{cases}}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Übertragungsfunktion_(kontinuierlich)"><span id=".C3.9Cbertragungsfunktion_.28kontinuierlich.29"></span>Übertragungsfunktion (kontinuierlich)</h3></div>
<div class="hauptartikel" role="navigation"><span class="hauptartikel-pfeil" title="siehe" aria-hidden="true" role="presentation">→&nbsp;</span><i><span class="hauptartikel-text">Hauptartikel</span>: <a href="%C3%9Cbertragungsfunktion" title="Übertragungsfunktion">Übertragungsfunktion</a></i></div>
<table class="infobox wikitable toptextcells float-right" cellspacing="5" style="font-size:95%; text-align:left; min-width:190px; max-width:300px; width:30%;">

<tbody><tr style="font-size:110%; text-align:center;">
<th colspan="2" class="hintergrundfarbe6" style="padding-left:0.5em; padding-right:0.5em; color:#202122;">Formelzeichen
</th></tr>



<tr>
<th><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle G}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>G</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle G}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f5f3c8921a3b352de45446a6789b104458c9f90b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.827ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle G}" loading="lazy"></span>
</th>
<td> Übertragungsfunktion, Übertragungsmatrix
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Z}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>Z</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Z}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/1cc6b75e09a8aa3f04d8584b11db534f88fb56bd.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.68ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Z}" loading="lazy"></span>
</th>
<td> Zählerpolynom
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle N}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>N</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle N}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/f5e3890c981ae85503089652feb48b191b57aae3.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.064ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle N}" loading="lazy"></span>
</th>
<td> Nennerpolynom
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle s}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>s</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle s}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/01d131dfd7673938b947072a13a9744fe997e632.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.09ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle s}" loading="lazy"></span>
</th>
<td> Laplace-Variable, komplexe Frequenz
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/bf368e72c009decd9b6686ee84a375632e11de98.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.088ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z}" loading="lazy"></span>
</th>
<td> Variable der z-Transformation
</td></tr>
<tr>
<th><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle d}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>d</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle d}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/e85ff03cbe0c7341af6b982e47e9f90d235c66ab.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.216ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle d}" loading="lazy"></span>
</th>
<td> für zeitdiskretes System
</td></tr></tbody></table>
<p>Erregt man ein einfaches zeitkontinuierliches kausales LZI-Systeme mit nur je einer Ein- und Ausgangsgröße mit der harmonischen Exponentiellen <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle e^{st}=e^{(\sigma +j\omega )t}=e^{\sigma t}\cdot \left(\sin {\omega t}+j\ \cos {\omega t}\right)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mi>e</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>s</mi>
<mi>t</mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>=</mo>
<msup>
<mi>e</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>σ<!-- σ --></mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>j</mi>
<mi>ω<!-- ω --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>=</mo>
<msup>
<mi>e</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>σ<!-- σ --></mi>
<mi>t</mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mrow>
<mi>sin</mi>
<mo>⁡<!-- ⁡ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>ω<!-- ω --></mi>
<mi>t</mi>
</mrow>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>j</mi>
<mtext>&nbsp;</mtext>
<mi>cos</mi>
<mo>⁡<!-- ⁡ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>ω<!-- ω --></mi>
<mi>t</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle e^{st}=e^{(\sigma +j\omega )t}=e^{\sigma t}\cdot \left(\sin {\omega t}+j\ \cos {\omega t}\right)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/8d6af2b56b64b3233993c06f5bd6da6eba20dec1.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:38.401ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle e^{st}=e^{(\sigma +j\omega )t}=e^{\sigma t}\cdot \left(\sin {\omega t}+j\ \cos {\omega t}\right)}" loading="lazy"></span> mit der <a href="Erweiterte_symbolische_Methode_der_Wechselstromtechnik" title="Erweiterte symbolische Methode der Wechselstromtechnik">komplexen Frequenz</a> <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle s=\sigma +j\omega }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>s</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>σ<!-- σ --></mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>j</mi>
<mi>ω<!-- ω --></mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle s=\sigma +j\omega }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/52b9a99cfe16a2003294604462f41acc7863fe66.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:10.763ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle s=\sigma +j\omega }" loading="lazy"></span>, dann errechnet sich (wie oben gezeigt) das Ausgangssignal durch „Faltung“ mit der Impulsantwort zu
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle y(t)=h(t)\ast e^{st}=\int \limits _{-\infty }^{\infty }h(\tau )\ e^{s(t-\tau )}\ d\tau =e^{st}\ \int \limits _{-\infty }^{\infty }h(\tau )\ e^{-s\tau }\ d\tau =e^{st}\cdot G(s)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>y</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>h</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>∗<!-- ∗ --></mo>
<msup>
<mi>e</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>s</mi>
<mi>t</mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>=</mo>
<munderover>
<mo>∫<!-- ∫ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi mathvariant="normal">∞<!-- ∞ --></mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">∞<!-- ∞ --></mi>
</mrow>
</munderover>
<mi>h</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>τ<!-- τ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mtext>&nbsp;</mtext>
<msup>
<mi>e</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>τ<!-- τ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mtext>&nbsp;</mtext>
<mi>d</mi>
<mi>τ<!-- τ --></mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<msup>
<mi>e</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>s</mi>
<mi>t</mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mtext>&nbsp;</mtext>
<munderover>
<mo>∫<!-- ∫ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi mathvariant="normal">∞<!-- ∞ --></mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">∞<!-- ∞ --></mi>
</mrow>
</munderover>
<mi>h</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>τ<!-- τ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mtext>&nbsp;</mtext>
<msup>
<mi>e</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>s</mi>
<mi>τ<!-- τ --></mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mtext>&nbsp;</mtext>
<mi>d</mi>
<mi>τ<!-- τ --></mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<msup>
<mi>e</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>s</mi>
<mi>t</mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mi>G</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle y(t)=h(t)\ast e^{st}=\int \limits _{-\infty }^{\infty }h(\tau )\ e^{s(t-\tau )}\ d\tau =e^{st}\ \int \limits _{-\infty }^{\infty }h(\tau )\ e^{-s\tau }\ d\tau =e^{st}\cdot G(s)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/c8d4858a5fe6b891d22e59c0fef907c037299004.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -4.005ex; width:70.469ex; height:8.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle y(t)=h(t)\ast e^{st}=\int \limits _{-\infty }^{\infty }h(\tau )\ e^{s(t-\tau )}\ d\tau =e^{st}\ \int \limits _{-\infty }^{\infty }h(\tau )\ e^{-s\tau }\ d\tau =e^{st}\cdot G(s)}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Am Ausgang erhält man also – typisch für ein LZI-System – die in Bezug auf die komplexe Frequenz <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle s}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>s</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle s}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/01d131dfd7673938b947072a13a9744fe997e632.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.09ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle s}" loading="lazy"></span> gleiche harmonische Exponentielle wie am Eingang, nur mit einer zeitunabhängigen Konstante multipliziert. Weil die Impulsantwort aufgrund der Kausalität für <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle t<0}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>t</mi>
<mo>&lt;</mo>
<mn>0</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle t&lt;0}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/9c8875f14d87cb6daa44307512a91eceb5f34d87.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:5.101ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle t<0}" loading="lazy"></span> verschwindet, ist diese Konstante identisch mit dem <a href="Laplace-Transformation#Definition" title="Laplace-Transformation">Laplace-Integral</a> der Impulsantwort
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle G(s)=\int \limits _{0}^{\infty }h(\tau )\ e^{-s\tau }\ d\tau ={\mathcal {L}}\left\{h(t)\right\}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>G</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<munderover>
<mo>∫<!-- ∫ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>0</mn>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">∞<!-- ∞ --></mi>
</mrow>
</munderover>
<mi>h</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>τ<!-- τ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mtext>&nbsp;</mtext>
<msup>
<mi>e</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>s</mi>
<mi>τ<!-- τ --></mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mtext>&nbsp;</mtext>
<mi>d</mi>
<mi>τ<!-- τ --></mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">L</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<mo>{</mo>
<mrow>
<mi>h</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>}</mo>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle G(s)=\int \limits _{0}^{\infty }h(\tau )\ e^{-s\tau }\ d\tau ={\mathcal {L}}\left\{h(t)\right\}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/8ae2ce9373b545ec31c2478a11af8bc684b07e16.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -4.005ex; width:34.263ex; height:8.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle G(s)=\int \limits _{0}^{\infty }h(\tau )\ e^{-s\tau }\ d\tau ={\mathcal {L}}\left\{h(t)\right\}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>und man bezeichnet sie als <a href="%C3%9Cbertragungsfunktion" title="Übertragungsfunktion">Laplace-Übertragungsfunktion</a>.
</p><p>Ihre Bezeichnung und ihre Wichtigkeit werden deutlich, wenn man die Gleichung <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle y(t)=(u*h)(t)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>y</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>u</mi>
<mo>∗<!-- ∗ --></mo>
<mi>h</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle y(t)=(u*h)(t)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/2b27afbed56705df74cd9503e8b61926bbf67145.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:16.224ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle y(t)=(u*h)(t)}" loading="lazy"></span> der Laplace-Transformation unterzieht, denn dann erhält man die Ein-/Ausgangsbeziehung des Systems aufgrund der Regeln der Laplace-Transformation als (einfache) Multiplikation im Laplace-„<a href="Bildbereich" class="mw-redirect" title="Bildbereich">Bildbereich</a>“ oder „<a href="Frequenzspektrum" title="Frequenzspektrum">Frequenzbereich</a>“:
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Y(s)={\mathcal {L}}\left\{y(t)\right\}={\mathcal {L}}\left\{h(t)\right\}\cdot {\mathcal {L}}\left\{u(t)\right\}=G(s)\cdot U(s)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>Y</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">L</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<mo>{</mo>
<mrow>
<mi>y</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>}</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">L</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<mo>{</mo>
<mrow>
<mi>h</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>}</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">L</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<mo>{</mo>
<mrow>
<mi>u</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>}</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>G</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mi>U</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Y(s)={\mathcal {L}}\left\{y(t)\right\}={\mathcal {L}}\left\{h(t)\right\}\cdot {\mathcal {L}}\left\{u(t)\right\}=G(s)\cdot U(s)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/13105c432d02827cf62119ab47cf7bdc7afebf23.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:51.454ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Y(s)={\mathcal {L}}\left\{y(t)\right\}={\mathcal {L}}\left\{h(t)\right\}\cdot {\mathcal {L}}\left\{u(t)\right\}=G(s)\cdot U(s)}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Die Übertragungsfunktion ist der Ein-/Ausgangs-Operator eines einfachen LZI-Systems im Bildbereich und besitzt die Form einer <a href="Rationale_Funktion" title="Rationale Funktion">gebrochen-rationalen Funktion</a> in <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle s}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>s</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle s}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/01d131dfd7673938b947072a13a9744fe997e632.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.09ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle s}" loading="lazy"></span>:
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle G(s)={\frac {Z(s)}{N(s)}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>G</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<mi>Z</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<mi>N</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle G(s)={\frac {Z(s)}{N(s)}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a88e892fd672c0e9c6b1ecd6fa5b5fb60fbbeeeb.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.671ex; width:13.624ex; height:6.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle G(s)={\frac {Z(s)}{N(s)}}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Sie kann als <a href="Pol-Nullstellen-Diagramm" title="Pol-Nullstellen-Diagramm">Pol-Nullstellen-Diagramm</a> grafisch dargestellt werden und bietet sich zur <a href="Stabilit%C3%A4tstheorie" title="Stabilitätstheorie">Stabilitätsanalyse</a> an. Geht man von der komplexen Frequenz <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle s}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>s</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle s}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/01d131dfd7673938b947072a13a9744fe997e632.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.09ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle s}" loading="lazy"></span> zur imaginären Frequenz <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle j\omega }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>j</mi>
<mi>ω<!-- ω --></mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle j\omega }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/635692523e5a0d8187e908408819010da7f0bd09.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.027ex; width:2.431ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle j\omega }" loading="lazy"></span> über, dann erhält man den <a href="Frequenzgang" title="Frequenzgang">Frequenzgang</a> des Systems, der sich zur graphischen Darstellung als <a href="Ortskurve_(Systemtheorie)" title="Ortskurve (Systemtheorie)">Ortskurve</a> oder <a href="Bodediagramm" class="mw-redirect" title="Bodediagramm">Bodediagramm</a> eignet.
</p><p>Bei einem Mehrgrößensystem werden die Übertragungsfunktionen aller Kombinationen der Eingänge und Ausgänge zur <i>Übertragungsmatrix</i> kombiniert. Sie ist die Laplace-Transformierte der Gewichtsmatrix <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle G(s)={\mathcal {L}}\left\{H(t)\right\}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>G</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">L</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<mo>{</mo>
<mrow>
<mi>H</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>}</mo>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle G(s)={\mathcal {L}}\left\{H(t)\right\}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/c7e4845d5aeae43f1fda6a15b294fc4506bba79f.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:16.853ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle G(s)={\mathcal {L}}\left\{H(t)\right\}}" loading="lazy"></span>.
</p><p>Ist ein LZI-System in Zustandsform gegeben, dann kann dessen DGL-System in den Bildbereich transformiert werden und führt bei Annahme eines verschwindenden Anfangszustandes auf rein algebraischem Weg zur Lösung im Bildbereich:
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\mathcal {L}}\left\{y(t)\right\}={\bigg (}C\ (s\ E-A)^{-1}\ B+D{\bigg )}\cdot {\mathcal {L}}\left\{u(t)\right\}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">L</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<mo>{</mo>
<mrow>
<mi>y</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>}</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo maxsize="2.047em" minsize="2.047em">(</mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mi>C</mi>
<mtext>&nbsp;</mtext>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>s</mi>
<mtext>&nbsp;</mtext>
<mi>E</mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>A</mi>
<msup>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mtext>&nbsp;</mtext>
<mi>B</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>D</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo maxsize="2.047em" minsize="2.047em">)</mo>
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</mrow>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">L</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<mo>{</mo>
<mrow>
<mi>u</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>}</mo>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\mathcal {L}}\left\{y(t)\right\}={\bigg (}C\ (s\ E-A)^{-1}\ B+D{\bigg )}\cdot {\mathcal {L}}\left\{u(t)\right\}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/5ac8fdece20ad1724c2ce8fc116ff3b7624d0e59.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:46.242ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\mathcal {L}}\left\{y(t)\right\}={\bigg (}C\ (s\ E-A)^{-1}\ B+D{\bigg )}\cdot {\mathcal {L}}\left\{u(t)\right\}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Daraus kann man die Übertragungsmatrix ablesen:
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle G(s)=C\ (s\ E-A)^{-1}\ B+D}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>G</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>C</mi>
<mtext>&nbsp;</mtext>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>s</mi>
<mtext>&nbsp;</mtext>
<mi>E</mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>A</mi>
<msup>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
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<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
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</msup>
<mtext>&nbsp;</mtext>
<mi>B</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>D</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle G(s)=C\ (s\ E-A)^{-1}\ B+D}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/48b8da730bff448628bfc0d1a565b1c119f0f352.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:29.454ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle G(s)=C\ (s\ E-A)^{-1}\ B+D}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Hieraus erkennt man durch Vergleich mit der Lösung im Zeitbereich eine wichtige Beziehung, die zur Ermittlung des Matrixexponentials genutzt werden kann<sup id="cite_ref-rust1_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rust1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>:
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\mathcal {L}}\left\{e^{At}\right\}=(s\ E-A)^{-1}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">L</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<mo>{</mo>
<msup>
<mi>e</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>A</mi>
<mi>t</mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>}</mo>
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<mo>=</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>s</mi>
<mtext>&nbsp;</mtext>
<mi>E</mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>A</mi>
<msup>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
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<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
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</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\mathcal {L}}\left\{e^{At}\right\}=(s\ E-A)^{-1}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/907f92469308a4ac51b0e426992ce79975e1e4c9.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; width:23.114ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\mathcal {L}}\left\{e^{At}\right\}=(s\ E-A)^{-1}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Für das oben genannte <i>Beispiel eines PT1-Gliedes</i> erhält man die bekannte Übertragungsfunktion
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle G(s)=\left(s+{\frac {1}{T}}\right)^{-1}\cdot {\frac {K}{T}}={\frac {K}{1+sT}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>G</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<msup>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mrow>
<mi>s</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mn>1</mn>
<mi>T</mi>
</mfrac>
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<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
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</msup>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mi>K</mi>
<mi>T</mi>
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<mfrac>
<mi>K</mi>
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<mn>1</mn>
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<mi>s</mi>
<mi>T</mi>
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</mfrac>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle G(s)=\left(s+{\frac {1}{T}}\right)^{-1}\cdot {\frac {K}{T}}={\frac {K}{1+sT}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/34635ea35e425819cba2c074af38b0001a32625e.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:35.227ex; height:6.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle G(s)=\left(s+{\frac {1}{T}}\right)^{-1}\cdot {\frac {K}{T}}={\frac {K}{1+sT}}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Übertragungsfunktionen erlauben auch eine einfache Verschaltung von Systemen und eine grafische Übersicht dieser Verschaltung im <a href="Signalflussplan" title="Signalflussplan">Signalflussplan</a>: LZI-Systeme kann man im Signalflussplan in der Reihenfolge vertauschen (kommutativ). Zwei aufeinanderfolgende Systeme kann man im Signalflussplan zusammenfassen, indem man die beiden Übertragungsfunktionen miteinander multipliziert.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Übertragungsfunktion_(diskret)"><span id=".C3.9Cbertragungsfunktion_.28diskret.29"></span>Übertragungsfunktion (diskret)</h3></div>
<p>Ausgehend von der Faltung mit der Impulsantwort <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle y(k)=(u*h)(k)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>y</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>k</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>u</mi>
<mo>∗<!-- ∗ --></mo>
<mi>h</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>k</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle y(k)=(u*h)(k)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/7c1a8f4a5fa4457a5206710024dcf1811748b23a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:16.968ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle y(k)=(u*h)(k)}" loading="lazy"></span> erfolgt für zeitdiskrete LZI-Eingrößen-Systeme eine entsprechende Definition der Übertragungsfunktion durch eine „diskrete Transformation“ der Zeitsignale in einen Bildbereich.
</p><p>Haben die Signale des diskreten Systems einen nichtquantifizierten Symbolvorrat (meist den der reellen Zahlen), dann bevorzugt man die z-Transformation
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Y(z)={\mathcal {Z}}\left\{y(k)\right\}={\mathcal {Z}}\left\{(u*h)(k)\right\}={\mathcal {Z}}\left\{u(k)\right\}\cdot {\mathcal {Z}}\left\{h(k)\right\}=U(z)\cdot G(z)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>Y</mi>
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<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
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<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
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<mo>=</mo>
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<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Y(z)={\mathcal {Z}}\left\{y(k)\right\}={\mathcal {Z}}\left\{(u*h)(k)\right\}={\mathcal {Z}}\left\{u(k)\right\}\cdot {\mathcal {Z}}\left\{h(k)\right\}=U(z)\cdot G(z)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/92ff66d581966463ae6fc999d4af1458cb064b64.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:70.384ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Y(z)={\mathcal {Z}}\left\{y(k)\right\}={\mathcal {Z}}\left\{(u*h)(k)\right\}={\mathcal {Z}}\left\{u(k)\right\}\cdot {\mathcal {Z}}\left\{h(k)\right\}=U(z)\cdot G(z)}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>und definiert die z-<a href="%C3%9Cbertragungsfunktion" title="Übertragungsfunktion">Übertragungsfunktion</a> als z-Transformierte der (diskreten) Impulsantwort (mit der komplexen z-Ebene als Bildbereich), welche die Form einer gebrochen-rationalen Funktion in <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/bf368e72c009decd9b6686ee84a375632e11de98.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.088ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z}" loading="lazy"></span> besitzt:
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle G(z)={\mathcal {Z}}\left\{h(k)\right\}={\frac {Z_{d}(z)}{N_{d}(z)}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>G</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>z</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">Z</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<mo>{</mo>
<mrow>
<mi>h</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>k</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>}</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mrow>
<msub>
<mi>Z</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>z</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<msub>
<mi>N</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>z</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle G(z)={\mathcal {Z}}\left\{h(k)\right\}={\frac {Z_{d}(z)}{N_{d}(z)}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/e3c3fdafa1734bba54b4a315d2aaa1e36ba461e2.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.671ex; width:26.467ex; height:6.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle G(z)={\mathcal {Z}}\left\{h(k)\right\}={\frac {Z_{d}(z)}{N_{d}(z)}}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Bei einem Mehrgrößensystem werden die Übertragungsfunktionen aller Kombinationen der Eingänge und Ausgänge zur <i>Übertragungsmatrix</i> kombiniert. Sie ist die z-Transformierte der Gewichtsmatrix <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle G(z)={\mathcal {Z}}\left\{H(k)\right\}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>G</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>z</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">Z</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<mo>{</mo>
<mrow>
<mi>H</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>k</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>}</mo>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle G(z)={\mathcal {Z}}\left\{H(k)\right\}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/1d52372aecfc283112234a12319fabba2b865e8a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:17.401ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle G(z)={\mathcal {Z}}\left\{H(k)\right\}}" loading="lazy"></span>.
</p><p>Löst man die Differenzengleichungen der Zustandsraumdarstellung mit Hilfe der z-Transformation und nimmt einen verschwindenden Anfangszustand an, dann entsteht als Lösung im Bildbereich
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\mathcal {Z}}\left\{y(k)\right\}={\bigg (}C\ (z\ E-A_{d})^{-1}\ B_{d}+D{\bigg )}\cdot {\mathcal {Z}}\left\{u(k)\right\}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">Z</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<mo>{</mo>
<mrow>
<mi>y</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>k</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>}</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo maxsize="2.047em" minsize="2.047em">(</mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mi>C</mi>
<mtext>&nbsp;</mtext>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>z</mi>
<mtext>&nbsp;</mtext>
<mi>E</mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<msub>
<mi>A</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<msup>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mtext>&nbsp;</mtext>
<msub>
<mi>B</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>D</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo maxsize="2.047em" minsize="2.047em">)</mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>⋅<!-- ⋅ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">Z</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<mo>{</mo>
<mrow>
<mi>u</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>k</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>}</mo>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\mathcal {Z}}\left\{y(k)\right\}={\bigg (}C\ (z\ E-A_{d})^{-1}\ B_{d}+D{\bigg )}\cdot {\mathcal {Z}}\left\{u(k)\right\}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/8b1dab2e7e92ae9f43595aa25ae836568cac12ac.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:49.524ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\mathcal {Z}}\left\{y(k)\right\}={\bigg (}C\ (z\ E-A_{d})^{-1}\ B_{d}+D{\bigg )}\cdot {\mathcal {Z}}\left\{u(k)\right\}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Daraus lässt sich die Übertragungsmatrix ablesen:
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle G(z)=C\ (z\ E-A_{d})^{-1}\ B_{d}+D}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>G</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>z</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>C</mi>
<mtext>&nbsp;</mtext>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>z</mi>
<mtext>&nbsp;</mtext>
<mi>E</mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<msub>
<mi>A</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<msup>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
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</msup>
<mtext>&nbsp;</mtext>
<msub>
<mi>B</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>D</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle G(z)=C\ (z\ E-A_{d})^{-1}\ B_{d}+D}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/9ff2ef783af3f487123be91ab211dc079b3fe7c2.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:31.633ex; height:3.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle G(z)=C\ (z\ E-A_{d})^{-1}\ B_{d}+D}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Die Äquivalenz zur Übertragungsmatrix von kontinuierlichen Systemen ist unverkennbar. Außerdem zeigt der Vergleich mit der Lösung im Zeitbereich eine wichtige Beziehung der Fundamentalmatrix <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Phi _{d}(k)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi mathvariant="normal">Φ<!-- Φ --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>k</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Phi _{d}(k)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/8246acf045722db2e9797b0ffdf47f3b78dbeda0.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:5.791ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Phi _{d}(k)}" loading="lazy"></span> und ihre Beziehung zu <a href="Laurent-Reihe" title="Laurent-Reihe">Laurent-Reihen</a><sup id="cite_ref-rust1_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rust1-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>:
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\mathcal {Z}}\left\{\Phi _{d}(k)\right\}={\mathcal {Z}}\left\{A_{d}^{k}\right\}=(z\ E-A_{d})^{-1}\ z=E+{\frac {A_{d}}{z}}+{\frac {A_{d}^{2}}{z^{2}}}+{\frac {A_{d}^{3}}{z^{3}}}+\dots }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">Z</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<mo>{</mo>
<mrow>
<msub>
<mi mathvariant="normal">Φ<!-- Φ --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>k</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>}</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">Z</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<mo>{</mo>
<msubsup>
<mi>A</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>k</mi>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<mo>}</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>z</mi>
<mtext>&nbsp;</mtext>
<mi>E</mi>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<msub>
<mi>A</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<msup>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mtext>&nbsp;</mtext>
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>E</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<msub>
<mi>A</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mi>z</mi>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<mo>+</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<msubsup>
<mi>A</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<msup>
<mi>z</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<mo>+</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<msubsup>
<mi>A</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>d</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>3</mn>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<msup>
<mi>z</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>3</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<mo>+</mo>
<mo>…<!-- … --></mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\mathcal {Z}}\left\{\Phi _{d}(k)\right\}={\mathcal {Z}}\left\{A_{d}^{k}\right\}=(z\ E-A_{d})^{-1}\ z=E+{\frac {A_{d}}{z}}+{\frac {A_{d}^{2}}{z^{2}}}+{\frac {A_{d}^{3}}{z^{3}}}+\dots }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/602139f9b6c2f332331fb9fe66de9cae64dfdb6a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.171ex; width:69.101ex; height:6.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\mathcal {Z}}\left\{\Phi _{d}(k)\right\}={\mathcal {Z}}\left\{A_{d}^{k}\right\}=(z\ E-A_{d})^{-1}\ z=E+{\frac {A_{d}}{z}}+{\frac {A_{d}^{2}}{z^{2}}}+{\frac {A_{d}^{3}}{z^{3}}}+\dots }" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Haben die Signale eines diskreten LZI-Systems einen quantifizierten und insbesondere endlichen Symbolvorrat (beispielsweise bei endlichen linearen Automaten), dann ist die auf der Analysis beruhende z-Transformation nicht geeignet und es muss eine rein algebraische <a href="Operatorenrechnung" title="Operatorenrechnung">Operatorenrechnung</a> verwendet werden. In der Literatur findet man dazu die D-Transformation<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> bzw. die Zeta-Transformation<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Beispiele">Beispiele</h2></div>
<ul><li>Elektrotechnik: <a href="Filter_(Elektronik)" class="mw-redirect" title="Filter (Elektronik)">Filter-Schaltungen</a> oder Verstärker</li>
<li>Mechanik: Getriebe</li>
<li><a href="Thermodynamik" title="Thermodynamik">Thermodynamik</a>: Zentralheizung, Motorkühlung</li>
<li>Wandler zwischen den zuvor genannten Systemarten: Elektromotor (Strom-Kraft), Temperatursensor (Temperatur-Strom)</li>
<li>Mathematisch (Digitale Simulation): Regler aller Art z.&nbsp;B. <a href="PID-Regler" class="mw-redirect" title="PID-Regler">PID-Regler</a></li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Beispiel_aus_der_Mechanik">Beispiel aus der Mechanik</h3></div>
<p>Der <a href="Freier_Fall#Freier_Fall_im_homogenen_Feld" title="Freier Fall">freie Fall ohne Reibung</a> wird beschrieben durch die Differentialgleichung
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m{\ddot {z}}=mg}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>m</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>¨<!-- ¨ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>m</mi>
<mi>g</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m{\ddot {z}}=mg}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/8cf0fc23342f82e01dcc05b60a2139c8cf2c08cf.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:9.591ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m{\ddot {z}}=mg}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>mit dem Weg <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/bf368e72c009decd9b6686ee84a375632e11de98.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.088ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z}" loading="lazy"></span>, der Beschleunigung an der Erdoberfläche <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle g}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>g</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle g}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/d3556280e66fe2c0d0140df20935a6f057381d77.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.116ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle g}" loading="lazy"></span> und der Masse des fallenden Gegenstandes <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>m</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/0a07d98bb302f3856cbabc47b2b9016692e3f7bc.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.04ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m}" loading="lazy"></span>. Übertragen in die Zustandsraumdarstellung und unter Herauskürzen von <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>m</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/0a07d98bb302f3856cbabc47b2b9016692e3f7bc.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:2.04ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m}" loading="lazy"></span> erhält man die Zustandsdifferentialgleichung
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}{\ddot {z}}\\{\dot {z}}\end{bmatrix}}={\begin{bmatrix}0&amp;0\\1&amp;0\end{bmatrix}}{\begin{bmatrix}{\dot {z}}\\z\end{bmatrix}}+{\begin{bmatrix}1\\0\end{bmatrix}}{\begin{bmatrix}g\end{bmatrix}}}">
<semantics>
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<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
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<mo>[</mo>
<mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em">
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>¨<!-- ¨ --></mo>
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</mtd>
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<mtr>
<mtd>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>˙<!-- ˙ --></mo>
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</mrow>
</mtd>
</mtr>
</mtable>
<mo>]</mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow>
<mo>[</mo>
<mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em">
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mn>0</mn>
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<mtd>
<mn>0</mn>
</mtd>
</mtr>
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mn>1</mn>
</mtd>
<mtd>
<mn>0</mn>
</mtd>
</mtr>
</mtable>
<mo>]</mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow>
<mo>[</mo>
<mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em">
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>˙<!-- ˙ --></mo>
</mover>
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</mrow>
</mtd>
</mtr>
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mi>z</mi>
</mtd>
</mtr>
</mtable>
<mo>]</mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>+</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow>
<mo>[</mo>
<mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em">
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mn>1</mn>
</mtd>
</mtr>
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mn>0</mn>
</mtd>
</mtr>
</mtable>
<mo>]</mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow>
<mo>[</mo>
<mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em">
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mi>g</mi>
</mtd>
</mtr>
</mtable>
<mo>]</mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}{\ddot {z}}\\{\dot {z}}\end{bmatrix}}={\begin{bmatrix}0&amp;0\\1&amp;0\end{bmatrix}}{\begin{bmatrix}{\dot {z}}\\z\end{bmatrix}}+{\begin{bmatrix}1\\0\end{bmatrix}}{\begin{bmatrix}g\end{bmatrix}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/0ee5cf1022e08a50e09123d7df93d3d2d53e1759.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:30.328ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}{\ddot {z}}\\{\dot {z}}\end{bmatrix}}={\begin{bmatrix}0&amp;0\\1&amp;0\end{bmatrix}}{\begin{bmatrix}{\dot {z}}\\z\end{bmatrix}}+{\begin{bmatrix}1\\0\end{bmatrix}}{\begin{bmatrix}g\end{bmatrix}}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>wobei <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle g}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>g</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle g}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/d3556280e66fe2c0d0140df20935a6f057381d77.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.116ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle g}" loading="lazy"></span> als (in der Regel konstanter) äußerer Einfluss betrachtet wird und damit ein (das einzige) Glied des Eingangsvektors bildet. Interessiert man sich naheliegenderweise für die momentane Position <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle p}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>p</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle p}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/81eac1e205430d1f40810df36a0edffdc367af36.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:1.259ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle p}" loading="lazy"></span> und Geschwindigkeit <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle v}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>v</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle v}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/e07b00e7fc0847fbd16391c778d65bc25c452597.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.128ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle v}" loading="lazy"></span>, lautet die Ausgangsgleichung
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}v\\p\end{bmatrix}}={\begin{bmatrix}1&amp;0\\0&amp;1\end{bmatrix}}{\begin{bmatrix}{\dot {z}}\\z\end{bmatrix}}+{\begin{bmatrix}0\\0\end{bmatrix}}{\begin{bmatrix}g\end{bmatrix}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow>
<mo>[</mo>
<mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em">
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mi>v</mi>
</mtd>
</mtr>
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mi>p</mi>
</mtd>
</mtr>
</mtable>
<mo>]</mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow>
<mo>[</mo>
<mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em">
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mn>1</mn>
</mtd>
<mtd>
<mn>0</mn>
</mtd>
</mtr>
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mn>0</mn>
</mtd>
<mtd>
<mn>1</mn>
</mtd>
</mtr>
</mtable>
<mo>]</mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow>
<mo>[</mo>
<mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em">
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>˙<!-- ˙ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mtd>
</mtr>
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mi>z</mi>
</mtd>
</mtr>
</mtable>
<mo>]</mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>+</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow>
<mo>[</mo>
<mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em">
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mn>0</mn>
</mtd>
</mtr>
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mn>0</mn>
</mtd>
</mtr>
</mtable>
<mo>]</mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow>
<mo>[</mo>
<mtable rowspacing="4pt" columnspacing="1em">
<mtr>
<mtd>
<mi>g</mi>
</mtd>
</mtr>
</mtable>
<mo>]</mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}v\\p\end{bmatrix}}={\begin{bmatrix}1&amp;0\\0&amp;1\end{bmatrix}}{\begin{bmatrix}{\dot {z}}\\z\end{bmatrix}}+{\begin{bmatrix}0\\0\end{bmatrix}}{\begin{bmatrix}g\end{bmatrix}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/d9d68fa1c288981a1f46c9e41277c6597d90865d.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:30.201ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}v\\p\end{bmatrix}}={\begin{bmatrix}1&amp;0\\0&amp;1\end{bmatrix}}{\begin{bmatrix}{\dot {z}}\\z\end{bmatrix}}+{\begin{bmatrix}0\\0\end{bmatrix}}{\begin{bmatrix}g\end{bmatrix}}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>mit einer <a href="Identit%C3%A4tsmatrix" class="mw-redirect" title="Identitätsmatrix">1-Matrix</a> als Ausgangsmatrix und einer <a href="Nullmatrix" title="Nullmatrix">Nullmatrix</a> als Durchgriffsmatrix, da die Ausgänge identisch mit den Zuständen sind. In dieser Betrachtung handelt es sich um ein LZI-System, da alle Matrizen des linearen Differentialgleichungssystems konstant, also zeitinvariant, sind.
</p><p>Berücksichtigt man aber, dass die <a href="Gravitation" title="Gravitation">Erdbeschleunigung</a> g abhängig ist vom Abstand der Massenschwerpunkte
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle g=G\,{\frac {m_{\mathrm {E} }}{(r_{\mathrm {E} }+z)^{2}}}=G\,{\frac {m_{\mathrm {E} }}{r_{\mathrm {E} }^{2}+2r_{\mathrm {E} }z+z^{2}}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>g</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>G</mi>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<msub>
<mi>m</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mrow>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<msub>
<mi>r</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi>
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<mo>+</mo>
<mi>z</mi>
<msup>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mrow>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>G</mi>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<msub>
<mi>m</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mrow>
<msubsup>
<mi>r</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<mo>+</mo>
<mn>2</mn>
<msub>
<mi>r</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<msup>
<mi>z</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mrow>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle g=G\,{\frac {m_{\mathrm {E} }}{(r_{\mathrm {E} }+z)^{2}}}=G\,{\frac {m_{\mathrm {E} }}{r_{\mathrm {E} }^{2}+2r_{\mathrm {E} }z+z^{2}}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/2335bd3b79e8724952f38057ad3da4d66f42d0cb.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.005ex; width:37.481ex; height:5.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle g=G\,{\frac {m_{\mathrm {E} }}{(r_{\mathrm {E} }+z)^{2}}}=G\,{\frac {m_{\mathrm {E} }}{r_{\mathrm {E} }^{2}+2r_{\mathrm {E} }z+z^{2}}}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>mit der Erdmasse <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle m_{\mathrm {E} }}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>m</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle m_{\mathrm {E} }}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/582c5da208cc95fbde04edc6e66125eb24d58a6c.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:3.392ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle m_{\mathrm {E} }}" loading="lazy"></span> und dem Erdradius <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle r_{\mathrm {E} }}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msub>
<mi>r</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle r_{\mathrm {E} }}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/1246e66f62189268e1dc71cad417ed7288efe750.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:2.4ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle r_{\mathrm {E} }}" loading="lazy"></span>, so ist das System nichtlinear abhängig vom Zustand z, also kein LZI-System.
</p><p>Wird die Erdbeschleunigung <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle g}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>g</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle g}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/d3556280e66fe2c0d0140df20935a6f057381d77.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.116ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle g}" loading="lazy"></span> aufgrund einer meist sehr viel kleineren Höhe <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/bf368e72c009decd9b6686ee84a375632e11de98.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.088ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z}" loading="lazy"></span> gegenüber dem Erdradius <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle z\ll r_{\mathrm {E} }}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>z</mi>
<mo>≪<!-- ≪ --></mo>
<msub>
<mi>r</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</msub>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle z\ll r_{\mathrm {E} }}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/62c0428bd76317f913f755505ceae53b7f24cf3a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:7.102ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle z\ll r_{\mathrm {E} }}" loading="lazy"></span> weiterhin als konstant betrachtet
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle g\approx G\,{\frac {m_{\mathrm {E} }}{r_{\mathrm {E} }^{2}}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>g</mi>
<mo>≈<!-- ≈ --></mo>
<mi>G</mi>
<mspace width="thinmathspace"></mspace>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<msub>
<mi>m</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</msub>
<msubsup>
<mi>r</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">E</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle g\approx G\,{\frac {m_{\mathrm {E} }}{r_{\mathrm {E} }^{2}}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/9f9b379062db1f16afcf218e40ae4c291ed4549b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.005ex; width:10.656ex; height:5.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle g\approx G\,{\frac {m_{\mathrm {E} }}{r_{\mathrm {E} }^{2}}}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>aber die <a href="Reibung" title="Reibung">Reibung</a> zwischen betrachteter Masse und Luft als sehr viel einflussreicher in linearer Abhängigkeit von <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\dot {z}}}">
<semantics>
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<mo>˙<!-- ˙ --></mo>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\dot {z}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/65464eca6ef8d9d58a1ccf59cdbe65b5854c97ad.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.296ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\dot {z}}}" loading="lazy"></span> linear berücksichtigt (siehe auch <a href="Fall_mit_Luftwiderstand#Fall_mit_Stokes-Reibung" title="Fall mit Luftwiderstand">Fall mit Luftwiderstand#Fall mit Stokes-Reibung</a>), erhält man die Zustandsdifferentialgleichung
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}{\ddot {z}}\\{\dot {z}}\end{bmatrix}}={\begin{bmatrix}-\beta &amp;0\\1&amp;0\end{bmatrix}}{\begin{bmatrix}{\dot {z}}\\z\end{bmatrix}}+{\begin{bmatrix}1\\0\end{bmatrix}}{\begin{bmatrix}g\end{bmatrix}}}">
<semantics>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}{\ddot {z}}\\{\dot {z}}\end{bmatrix}}={\begin{bmatrix}-\beta &amp;0\\1&amp;0\end{bmatrix}}{\begin{bmatrix}{\dot {z}}\\z\end{bmatrix}}+{\begin{bmatrix}1\\0\end{bmatrix}}{\begin{bmatrix}g\end{bmatrix}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/6848d46fb26a1d2ffdce3e62680b9f42fac24478.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:32.306ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}{\ddot {z}}\\{\dot {z}}\end{bmatrix}}={\begin{bmatrix}-\beta &amp;0\\1&amp;0\end{bmatrix}}{\begin{bmatrix}{\dot {z}}\\z\end{bmatrix}}+{\begin{bmatrix}1\\0\end{bmatrix}}{\begin{bmatrix}g\end{bmatrix}}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>mit dem Reibkoeffizienten <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \beta }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
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<mi>β<!-- β --></mi>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \beta }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/7ed48a5e36207156fb792fa79d29925d2f7901e8.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.332ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \beta }" loading="lazy"></span>. Wird <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \beta }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>β<!-- β --></mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \beta }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/7ed48a5e36207156fb792fa79d29925d2f7901e8.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.332ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \beta }" loading="lazy"></span> als Formkonstante des fallenden Gegenstandes betrachtet, handelt es sich nach wie vor um ein LZI-System.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Literatur">Literatur</h2></div>
<ul><li>Heinz Unbehauen: <i>Regelungstechnik 1</i>, Vieweg, Braunschweig/Wiesbaden, ISBN 3-528-93332-1</li>
<li>Alan V. Oppenheim, Roland W. Schafer, John R. Buck: <i>Zeitdiskrete Signalverarbeitung</i>, Pearson/München, ISBN 3-8273-7077-9</li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Einzelnachweise">Einzelnachweise</h2></div>
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-rust1-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-rust1_1-0">a</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-rust1_1-1">b</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-rust1_1-2">c</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text">Rolf Unbehauen: <cite style="font-style:italic">Systemtheorie 1</cite>. 8. Auflage. Oldenbourg, München / Wien 2002, ISBN 3-486-25999-7.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Lineares+zeitinvariantes+System&amp;rft.au=Rolf+Unbehauen&amp;rft.btitle=Systemtheorie+1&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.edition=8.&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=3486259997&amp;rft.place=M%C3%BCnchen+%2F+Wien&amp;rft.pub=Oldenbourg" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-:0-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-0">a</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-1">b</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-2">c</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-:0_2-3">d</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text">J. Ackermann: <cite style="font-style:italic">Abtastregelung</cite>. 2. Auflage. Springer-Verlag, Berlin / Heidelberg / New York 1983.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Lineares+zeitinvariantes+System&amp;rft.au=J.+Ackermann&amp;rft.btitle=Abtastregelung&amp;rft.date=1983&amp;rft.edition=2.&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.place=Berlin+%2F+Heidelberg+%2F+New+York&amp;rft.pub=Springer-Verlag" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-3">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="cite"><a class="external text" href="https://de.wikibooks.org/wiki/Einf%C3%BChrung_in_die_Systemtheorie/_Numerische_Berechnung_dynamischer_Systeme#Differenzengleichung_der_Verz%C3%B6gerung_(PT1-Glied)"><i>Differenzengleichung 1.Ordnung.</i></a><span class="Abrufdatum"> Abgerufen am 5.&nbsp;September 2023</span>.</span><span style="display: none;" class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adc&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fde.wikipedia.org%3ALineares+zeitinvariantes+System&amp;rft.title=Differenzengleichung+1.Ordnung&amp;rft.description=Differenzengleichung+1.Ordnung&amp;rft.identifier=https%3A%2F%2Fde.wikibooks.org%2Fwiki%2FEinf%25C3%25BChrung_in_die_Systemtheorie%2F_Numerische_Berechnung_dynamischer_Systeme%23Differenzengleichung_der_Verz%25C3%25B6gerung_%28PT1-Glied%29">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-4">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="cite"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tugraz.at/fileadmin/user_upload/Institute/IRT/Aufgabensammlung/Control_Systems_1/Control_Systems_1.pdf"><i>Control Systems.</i></a><span class="Abrufdatum"> Abgerufen am 5.&nbsp;September 2023</span>.</span><span style="display: none;" class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adc&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fde.wikipedia.org%3ALineares+zeitinvariantes+System&amp;rft.title=Control+Systems&amp;rft.description=Control+Systems&amp;rft.identifier=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tugraz.at%2Ffileadmin%2Fuser_upload%2FInstitute%2FIRT%2FAufgabensammlung%2FControl_Systems_1%2FControl_Systems_1.pdf">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-5">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Gerhard_Wunsch" title="Gerhard Wunsch">Gerhard Wunsch</a>, Helmut Schreiber: <cite style="font-style:italic">Analoge Systeme – Grundlagen</cite>. Verlag Technik, Berlin 1985, <a href="Deutsche_Nationalbibliothek" title="Deutsche Nationalbibliothek">DNB</a>&nbsp;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.dnb.de/opac.htm?referrer=Wikipedia&amp;method=simpleSearch&amp;cqlMode=true&amp;query=idn%3D860626318">860626318</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Lineares+zeitinvariantes+System&amp;rft.au=Gerhard+Wunsch%2C+Helmut+Schreiber&amp;rft.btitle=Analoge+Systeme+-+Grundlagen&amp;rft.date=1985&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.place=Berlin&amp;rft.pub=Verlag+Technik" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-6">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Gerhard_Wunsch" title="Gerhard Wunsch">Gerhard Wunsch</a>: <cite style="font-style:italic">Handbuch der Systemtheorie</cite>. R. Oldenbourg, München Wien 1986, ISBN 3-486-20017-8.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Lineares+zeitinvariantes+System&amp;rft.au=Gerhard+Wunsch&amp;rft.btitle=Handbuch+der+Systemtheorie&amp;rft.date=1986&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=3486200178&amp;rft.place=M%C3%BCnchen+Wien&amp;rft.pub=R.+Oldenbourg" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-7">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Gerhard_Wunsch" title="Gerhard Wunsch">Gerhard Wunsch</a>, Helmut Schreiber: <cite style="font-style:italic">Digitale Systeme – Grundlagen</cite>. Verlag Technik, Berlin 1982, <a href="Deutsche_Nationalbibliothek" title="Deutsche Nationalbibliothek">DNB</a>&nbsp;<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.dnb.de/opac.htm?referrer=Wikipedia&amp;method=simpleSearch&amp;cqlMode=true&amp;query=idn%3D840950934">840950934</a>.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Lineares+zeitinvariantes+System&amp;rft.au=Gerhard+Wunsch%2C+Helmut+Schreiber&amp;rft.btitle=Digitale+Systeme+-+Grundlagen&amp;rft.date=1982&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.place=Berlin&amp;rft.pub=Verlag+Technik" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
</ol>
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